Storage of organic fruit

An essential consideration when storing fresh fruit is to ensure that only the highest quality examples are selected in the first place. As an organic producer, the objective is always to provide a safe, nutrient rich environment, one which enables healthy fruit to develop without the assistance of toxic pesticides and other chemical additives. Fruit which has been nurtured appropriately from the earliest stages will always store more easily, and remain fresher than produce which has been compromised by adverse growing conditions or bad management. There are few long term advantages to be gained from storing crops which are in poor condition.

Most fruit can be stored in a variety of ways. Any decision regarding the most suitable approach to storage will ultimately depend upon the quality and condition of the fruit combined with a realistic understanding of potential applications and consumer demand. In comparison to conventionally grown produce, organic fruit provides consumers with an assurance that biologically integrated methods were chosen in preference to others which might have improved efficiency at the ultimate expense of safety. To remain consistent, reputable organic producers must maintain these standards throughout the distribution chain. This requires an optimum level of understanding and practical co-operation with the relevant wholesalers, retailers, and other suppliers.

The optimum storage of fresh fruit in bulk quantities depends upon a clean, secure, and temperature controlled environment. Fresh produce chillers are normally set between four and ten degrees Celsius. To ensure premium freshness and longevity, a cool, even temperature must be maintained at all times, however, many individuals argue that chilling fresh fruit in cold storage decreases the flavour and alters the natural texture. In such cases, a slightly higher temperature is satisfactory, providing that the storage period is decreased and that local humidity is naturally low or can be easily controlled. An elevated humidity accompanying higher storage temperatures will increase the likelihood of promoting fungal growth and bacterial decay in stored fruit.

Unlike conventional growers, suppliers of organically certified produce do not use sprays or chemicals to restrict natural organisms. Most certification bodies also restrict the use of emulsions, waxes, and coatings similar to those which are routinely sprayed on conventional produce to enhance appearance and prolong storage capabilities. There are ethical and statutory guidelines which encourage organic food to be delivered to the consumer in an unaltered state. For organic certified produce, there must be no detectable levels of chemical contamination or environmental pollutants. These include emissions released from hydrocarbon fuels, industrial refrigeration, and cleaning solvents.

Given these restrictions, one of the difficult challenges lies in maintaining an adequate level of ventilation without compromising the biological integrity of the stored produce. Since many of the conventional pest controls are viewed as potential contaminants, the storage environment for organic produce requires a higher level of physical security. The most common entry points for insects and other organisms attracted to fruit are windows, unsealed doors, ventilation shafts, drains, pipes, and cracks in flooring, ceiling, and wall panels. For small scale and domestic purposes, fresh fruit can be stored outdoors in sheds or garages, provided these are insulated and well removed from sources of contamination. It can be a good investment to purchase several refrigerators from a junkyard. Whether set at low temperatures or left unconnected, their insulated construction protects stored fruit against sudden shifts in temperature and secure sealed doors prevent access to unwanted insects, mice, and other organisms.

With the exception of stone fruit, grapes, berries, and most tropical fruits, extended storage periods of at least several months can be achieved under optimum conditions. Depending on the variety, apples and pears can last for up to six months. The cardboard packing trays used by large producers and wholesalers are an excellent technology to ensure that fruit is well separated and that air can flow easily between stacked layers. Once harvested, humidity is unacceptable for citrus fruits which must be carefully stored in a cool and dry location. As with all fruit, they must be stored separately from other produce, particularly the root vegetables. The only exceptions to this rule are the culinary herbs which can be stored safely alongside citrus fruit. In regions surrounding the Mediterranean and Adriatic seas, it was traditional practice to store citrus fruit such as oranges, lemon, and grapefruit alongside dried rosemary, basil, and other aromatic herbs in underground cellars. It is now accepted that such herbs contain antiseptic and antibacterial properties which probably help to maintain a clean, microbe controlled environment.

Seasonal fruit like peaches, cherries, apricots, grapes, and berries are suitable for short periods of fresh storage, up to one month in good conditions. All types of fruit must be periodically checked during their storage period. There is a popular wisdom suggesting that one bad apple left unattended will spoil an entire bunch. In the case of fruit storage, this is literally true. Any fruit exhibiting signs of decay should be removed immediately to prevent further contamination. Whenever large quantities of stored fruit begin to simultaneously rot, the most likely cause is some combination of inappropriate storage duration, poor handling techniques, problems with controlled climate conditions, or poor quality produce to begin with.

Large quantities of seasonal fruit which cannot be immediately released onto fresh markets are often sun dried, industrially dehydrated, or used as an ingredient for preserves, sauces, and other condiments. For stabilising their premium quality fruit, most organic growers tend to prefer traditional methods of sun or oven drying. Industrial dehydration is a fast and efficient process which will accommodate large quantities with minimal waste. Often selected by large scale producers and fruit growing cooperatives, the main disadvantage with these applications is the inclusion of chemical drying agents, preservatives, and, on some occasions, flavour enhancers. Creating a healthy range of preserves, juice, sauces, and other condiments eliminates waste by enabling the organic grower or wholesale distributor to process and store any fruit that is slightly bruised, discoloured, difficult to handle or to sell in large quantities.

Juicing is one of the simplest means of storing fruit. Centrifugal or cold pressed extraction is used for high quality processing. Both methods ensure enhanced protection of essential nutrients, particularly compared to those incorporating high temperatures, pressure, and chemical emulsifiers. Similar to other manufactured food products, chemical additives are widely used to alter the flavour, texture, colour, and nutritional properties of some packaged juices. Without the inclusion of preservative, fresh juice must be refrigerated and has a very limited shelf life. Despite the potential inconvenience, it is much healthier to consume juices which are freshly extracted from certified organic produce without the addition of chemical food agents.

Almost any fruit can be used to make sweet jams and preserves. After picking, fruit is cooked until the texture breaks down, releasing a syrupy juice. With addition of cane sugar and a water soluble fibre known as pectin, the juice is transformed into a firm jelly which keeps well and can be easily spread on toast or used to flavour cakes, donuts, and other dessert recipes. The best approach is to work quickly, making smaller batches rather than attempting a large one. When cooking utensils are burdened with excessive fruit, their heating and evaporating surfaces are inadequate and will boil rather than simmer the fruit. Adding the recommended quantity of fruit, and an approximately equivalent measure of sugar, contents must be simmered quickly until the juices release.

If desired the juice can be strained to create a jelly that is free of seeds, skin, and other particles. Otherwise, the entire fruit portion can be included as a traditional jam preserve. Whatever the choice, each mixture must be transferred as quickly as possible into warm, sterilised glass jars with lids. Most berry fruits will set firm without additional pectin, however to be safe, it is possible to purchase sachets of this natural food agent from most health food and organic produce retailers. The other alternative is to add some finely chopped apple during the simmer, since apples are a particularly rich source of pectin. For those who prefer savoury as opposed to sweet flavours, chutney or relish are preserves containing fruit, vegetables, spices, and sugar. These condiments are traditionally used to accompany cheeses, meat, and bread.

Pruning organic fruit trees

Pruning is required to regulate the growth and shape of fruit trees, vines, and bushes. Because many of these are expected to support heavy crops, they need to develop a strong and resilient framework. This can usually be achieved through a combination of variety selection, and effective management which utilises a range of organic cultivation techniques such as soil enhancement, biological controls, companion planting, regular pruning, and fruit thinning. Immature trees and bushes are pruned to stimulate the correct orientation and solid growth of supporting limbs and branches. Over several seasons, the foliage is pruned into a shape which will eventually provide good protection for developing fruit while maintaining a reasonable degree of physical accessibility. Along with regular fruit thinning, skilfully administered pruning stimulates new growth, and can improve the quality of seasonal fruits. Once fruit trees and bushes reach their mature size, pruning maintains a tidy appearance and facilitates garden hygiene through the periodic removal of overcrowded, dead, diseased, and damaged portions of the plant.

To achieve the best results, pruning should be undertaken at the appropriate time of year using high quality, well maintained tools. It is important to avoid nitrogen rich supplements during the preceding season, since these will encourage uneven growth flushes and compromised fruit development. For most fruit species, winter is the correct time to prune. Winter pruning stimulates replacement growth which enables the overall shape and size of the plant to be influenced. There is less likelihood of infection when plants are dormant and minimal quantities of sap progress to the extremities. When fruit trees are heavily pruned in spring or early summer, the effort that goes into new growth is wasted. A light pruning during this growth phase will stimulate fruiting. The removal of half to three quarters of each new shoot improves the circulation of air and light, encouraging the formation of fruit buds. This should not be confused with fruit thinning which is removal of a portion of the immature fruit to enhance the quality of the remaining crop. Many organic orchardists will prune their older fruit bearing trees, and then wait several weeks before tackling the young and immature plants. Pruning takes some time to master and this approach provides the opportunity to practice and reach competency on the most firmly established and resilient plants. It is an effective way of minimising crop losses, particularly for the delicate stone fruit such as nectarines, and peaches.

High quality garden tools are designed to last a lifetime. They are expensive but should never be substituted for the poorly manufactured items sold in surplus and discount department stores. Pruning shears, loppers, secateurs, saws, and knives are best purchased from specialist garden suppliers with knowledgeable staff. A well designed tool will contain sufficient ergonomic features to support correct cutting techniques while maintaining a high level of physical comfort. This is particularly important for gardeners with arthritis and other conditions contributing to a reduced manual dexterity. Stainless steel blades are an excellent choice however there are alternatives which have gained popularity in recent years. Heat treated tungsten and Teflon coatings, similar to those applied in cookware and engine components are certainly worth considering.

To be effective in their operation, pruning tools must be kept scrupulously clean, well oiled and sharp. Blunt and dirty blades will soon damage fruit plants and provide opportunities for infection and disease. To limit the possibility of cross infection between individual plants, it is strongly recommended that pruning blades be wiped down with a soap solution then dried before using them on another. At the end of the session, these tools should be carefully inspected then cleaned with a mineral spirit before oiling both the blades and associated moving parts.

While there is a wide range of pruning methods and techniques, the basic approach to cutting should remain the same. Whenever possible, secateur or knife cuts should be made above the bud with the cut angled away from it. This enables rainwater to drip down the stem, protecting the bud and top of the exposed cut from bacterial rot and fungus. The cuts need to be clean and decisive to prevent damage to plant tissue. Larger branches need to be removed with loppers or a pruning saw. When the selected branch is heavy, it is safer and more effective to remove this in separate stages.

Beginning from the lower surface of the branch, the first cut should be angled upwards and approximately forty five degrees outwards from the trunk. Aim this preliminary cut at least three hundred millimetres outward from the branch collar or final cut, as anticipated. This assists the branch to fall easily with minimal splitting once a second cut is driven directly down from above. The second cut should begin at the top of the branch just above the undercut. Follow through until the weight of the branch causes it to separate from the tree. Having removed the additional weight, a final cut can be made at the branch collar or further out if required, cutting straight from the top to the bottom of the branch. This practice increases the number of actions required but greatly reduces the risk of forked branches splitting down into the trunk and causing extensive damage to the bark and sensitive internal vessels of the tree.

Like most essential practices in organic horticulture, the technical and aesthetic elements of pruning are widely debated in both professional and amateur circles. Most comprehensive garden publications will contain the foundation elements of a recognised pruning approach. These elements can be directly applied to achieve a satisfactory result. They can also be adapted or expanded with some of the supplementary techniques and approaches gained through wider reading, observation, and practical experience. Once the basic principles of cutting are mastered, they can be employed with any of the popular guidelines which demonstrate pruning in a sequence of instructional steps.

The following sequence is provided as a guideline for pruning mature fruit trees. Beginning with an inspection around the base, remove any root suckers to prevent their enlargement and competition for the water and nutrients required for upper growth. Check the base of each trunk for any discoloration or mottling which may indicate treatable problems like root parasite or fungal growth. Moving upwards, check each trunk for stability then select any limbs which need removing. It is good practice to begin by clearing any dead, damaged, or diseased limbs. This is important for safety reasons and assists with the planning and execution of later cuts.

After tackling the dead wood, remove any low, drooping limbs. In most instances these will be heavily shaded by higher growth and unable to provide fruit. These limbs drain resources which are better utilised for central growth and seasonal fruit production. Similarly, rapid upright growth in trees and outward growth in the case of wall trained bushes should be restricted. Vertical flourishing of high foliage does not support valuable fruit production in trees and outward growth of wall trained bushes is likely to cast productive sectors in shadow, with the potential to impact adversely upon fruit ripening.

The next step involves removal of crossing and dense parallel growth. Excessive parallel growth restricts the availability of sunlight for developing fruit. Crossing growth generates friction which can damage bark and create access for parasites and disease. Once all damaged and unproductive growth has been removed, trees and bushes can be shaped to accommodate future growth and optimum fruit production. Many organic fruit growers shape citrus and stone fruit into the traditional conical pattern with upper limbs cut back further than lower limbs. This enables maximum quantities of sunlight to reach developing fruit. Once the larger branches are trimmed in this manner, smaller ones should be selectively thinned to remove redundant foliage and encourage new growth.

Propagation of organic fruit trees

The propagation of fruit trees, bushes, and vines is a technical field containing considerable traps and difficulty for the inexperienced gardener. For a variety of reasons most commercial growers no longer propagate their own stock. Among these, time constraints, and barriers restricting convenient access to biological materials are believed to deter many growers away from the task. At the same time, the commercial success of large scale nurseries specialising in propagation have enabled these professional breeders to provide large quantities of plants at highly competitive prices.

Despite these inducements to abandon their interest in the field, there is a small percentage of fruit growers who remain devoted to the task of propagating their own varieties. Within this group, the proportion of growers devoted to organic principles is known to be considerably higher than those pursuing conventional agricultural practices. The organic philosophy is traditionally associated with a level of sustainability which encourages the integration of all garden activities throughout the season. The ability to propagate new plants is correctly viewed as a key element for maintaining control over subsequent generations of organic fruit production. In many instances, organic fruit growers will be interested in relatively uncommon, or old fashioned varieties which are difficult or impossible to obtain from professional nurseries. Most of these preferred varieties possess some unique characteristics which make them more suitable for organic fruit production. The most important of these is the correct adaptation to local soil and weather conditions.

Naturally raised plants tend to grow strong, resilient and produce healthy fruit within a surprisingly narrow range of conditions. Over many generations, these plants develop an inbuilt resistance to the commonest types of disease and pest organisms prevalent in their established growing range. This contrasts with newer strains which are developed for their ability to adapt across a wide range of growing conditions. Without the generational links to any particular environment, new strains have a limited capacity to resist the increased quantities of disease and pest organisms which they will potentially encounter. As a consequence of this, many of the newly developed varieties are highly dependent on the sustained chemical treatment and related practices, which are routinely prescribed for conventional fruit growers.

In many cases the plants offered to fruit growers will be heavily sprayed, and are likely to be bred from similarly treated stock. Occasionally, these plants will be separated from chemical treatments for a generation or two, and may even be described as organic varieties in order to command a premium selling price. Despite promotional efforts, these varieties do not possess a genuine pedigree and on account of their impoverished resilience, are unlikely to survive the rigours of an organic fruit orchard.  For these reasons alone, fruit producers who remain committed to the organic movement must exercise considerable caution in their choice of stock. For long term success, they depend upon the availability of healthy varieties which have been developed over extended periods within their local growing conditions.

With the exception of melons, pears, and strawberries, there are few species of fruit which can be routinely cultivated from seed. Most of the fruit we consume is propagated asexually, meaning that it derives from a parent plant in the form of a grafted cutting, rootstock, or runner. In comparison to their wild ancestors, most domestically cultivated fruit species are hybridised and do not reproduce effectively or true to type from collected seed. For the sake of convenience, many fruit species are also cultivated on independent rootstock. Once again, this practice contributes to unpredictable outcomes whenever attempts are made to grow fruit plants from seed.

When propagating plants asexually, there is a tremendous emphasis which must be placed upon the health and vitality of the parent stock. For obvious reasons these plants need to be developmentally mature and entirely free of disease. To maintain their disease free status, temperate climate fruit such as apricots and cherries are best propagated in extremely arid regions subject to heavy frost. While these conditions may be considerably harsher than those recommended for commercial fruit production, they possess the benefit of eradicating many strains of disease. Successful propagation of fruit varieties usually requires such tailored conditions, and many are known to be notoriously difficult to manage. For this reason, inexperienced growers are well advised to source their juvenile fruit plants from a reputable organic breeder.

Popular hardwood fruit species such as apples, cherries, blackcurrant, and blueberries can be propagated from carefully selected cuttings. Most sources recommend obtaining these about two weeks after autumn leaf fall, well before the first buds have opened. Damaged or blemished sections of growth are inappropriate for hardwood propagation, as are any sections obtained from diseased or suspect trees. For best results, healthy stems must be selected from the previous season’s new growth and should be around two hundred millimetres in length with a diameter approximating that of a standard drawing pencil. Using a sharp knife, selected stems should be cleanly dissected from their parent plants with the cuts angled to promote water runoff and discourage stagnant dampness and associated problems.

Once removed, the cuttings can be temporarily placed in a jar of water and stored in a cool location. To plant the cuttings, narrow propagation trenches are dug to a shallow depth, enabling approximately fifty millimetres of the shoot to be exposed above ground, ensuring that the carefully angled cut is uppermost. The trench is loosely filled with coarse sand or a fine grit to assist root development and discourage rotting. These cuttings should then be allowed to take root for an entire growing season before lifting and permanently planting at the commencement of a new budding season.

Softwood fruit species like domesticated cranberry and grapes can be propagated from the green and sappy stems which develop from healthy parent plants in late spring and early summer. Measure approximately one hundred millimetres of stem and then dissect below the nearest leaf node. Remove the lower leaves so that roots will develop from the bare nodes and insert stems into a tray of organic potting mixture. Selectively prune upper foliage until there is no contact between individual leaves. Check on the condition regularly and immediately discard dead stems and any which appear sick or diseased. Once the stems recommence growth, they should be individually potted and maintained until the following spring when they are ready for outdoor planting.

Creeping vines and cane fruit can be propagated by the separation of suckers and runners where available or by selective root cuttings. Quality strawberry vines and domesticated raspberry bushes should be inspected for new runners and suckers at the end of their fruiting season in autumn. Clumps of strawberry runners should be divided to ensure a bud and root for each new plant. These can be planted to earth directly or potted and replanted the following spring. Raspberry suckers are treated in similar fashion, separating the rooted suckers in autumn. Blackberry canes can be propagated from root cuttings which are separated from parent stock in winter. With a very sharp knife remove fifty millimetre long root sections of approximately ten millimetre diameter, ensuring these possess at least one bud for renewed growth. The cut closest to the parent plant should be straight and the distant end trimmed at an angle. New cuttings should be wrapped in hessian and stored in a cool, dry, location for several weeks before potting with an organic growing medium. Encourage new growth by keeping the plants moist and providing them with plenty of warm sunlight. They can be safely planted into open ground the following spring.

Grafting and budding are propagation techniques frequently used by professional plant breeders. Both involve transplanting a carefully cut portion of a breeding plant onto the woody stem or branch of a supporting stock. There are many situations where both techniques will benefit organic fruit production. For example, it is common practice to graft apple and pear cuttings onto dwarf rootstock, thereby limiting the size and nutrient demands of each tree without substantially altering the desired qualities of the original breeding variety. A special rootstock may also be selected for beneficial qualities such as an ability to resist fungal or parasitic disease in susceptible soils. Because grafting and budding are both challenging techniques to master, amateur growers are well advised to seek professional assistance from a reputable source, such as an organic propagation nursery.

Stakes and ties

Stakes and ties are applied to immature and developing fruit species to control the direction and patterns of growth and to ensure strong root and trunk development. After planting outdoors, most juvenile fruit trees will benefit from some individual support to help them establish a healthy and well distributed root system. Inexpensive and reusable wooden stakes can be purchased from most organic nurseries and garden supply centres. Alternatively, it may be feasible to cut and shape suitable tree stakes from narrow lengths of hardwood moulding.

Stakes should be inserted securely into the ground before the tree is planted on the most protected side. In a site affected by strong winds, it is good practice to encircle juvenile trees with three stakes. Each stake can be lashed with a section of garden twine which loops through a single tie around the trunk to provide maximum support and stability. An appropriate height for the introductory stake is roughly a third of the trees total height above the ground. This enables the top section of the tree to move easily, and encourages the lower trunk to thicken and develop along with the supporting root system. Towards the end of the first seasons growth, these low stake can be carefully removed and replaced with taller ones which support the trunk around the halfway point of the trees current above ground height.

When securing young fruit trees to their supporting stakes, it is important to avoid inflexible materials such as plastic ties, nylon cord, and wire. At certain stages in their development, immature trees can double their proportions in several months. If the trunk continues to expand in the presence of such physical restriction, there can be serious structural distortion and damage to young bark and the underlying vessels it protects. Reputable organic distributors sell high quality tree and plant ties made from strong but reasonably pliable materials such as elastic, rubber, or hemp. The best ones to purchase are those which encircle both tree and stake in a figure of eight loop. This configuration prevents the trunk from rubbing against the stake.  For those with an enthusiasm for recycling, the best materials to use are discarded elastic tights and old bicycle inner tubes. Once attached to their stakes, young fruit trees should be routinely inspected, to ensure healthy growth and to initiate the replacement of any worn or damaged ties.

In order to produce a consistent and accessible crop, most species of vine and hybrid cane fruit need to be supported on a trellis or wire framework. These can be elaborate and detailed creations or constructed simply from permanent materials such as galvanised fencing wire and hardwood stakes or posts. Once the dimensions of each row are calculated, a simple framework can be erected with modest physical effort and a couple of spare hours. Begin by driving a two metre post approximately five hundred millimetres into the ground at each end of the row. These leading upright posts should both be attached by heavy nails to another post which braces the upright at a forty five degree angle. The purpose of the bracing post is to support the leading uprights and to apply tension to wires running between these. Once the leading uprights are braced, a series of intermediate posts can be positioned at regular intervals of approximately two metres, and driven down to a similar depth as the leaders.

Depending on the anticipated height and density of the vine, up to six rows of galvanised fencing wire can be tensioned between the upright posts. Beginning with a leading post, use eye bolts or galvanised nail clasps to secure the first wire approximately four hundred millimetres above the ground. Continuing to the first intermediate post, carefully tension the wire with pliers, secure then proceed to the next and remaining posts. Repeat this sequence to install the upper and remaining rows of wire, ensuring that each row is spaced approximately three hundred millimetres from its nearest counterpart. When the structure is completed, new fruit vines or cane cuttings can be loosely attached to these wires. In a very short time, the plants will climb and expand naturally around the framework, without the need for additional support.

When growing space is limited, there is an old fashioned yet useful technique known as espalier which can improve the yield and quality of fruit from a range of trees including apple, citrus, fig, pear, and plum. The espalier technique has also been applied successfully with kiwifruit vines. The miniature varieties of fruit tree available today are usually more amenable to espalier techniques than the larger and slow maturing varieties. These suitable plants are usually supported by a wall, fence, or trellis. Based on the cultivation practice which originated in France and Italy during the seventeenth century, espalier is highly valued for its decorative and aesthetic appeal. When executed to a high standard, espalier provides additional charm to historical dwellings and is also well suited for the sunny courtyards of city apartments.

To prepare for espalier, run at least three horizontal lines of galvanised fencing wire across a fence or wall, ensuring that the lowest is four hundred millimetres above the ground and that subsequent lines are separated by approximately similar intervals. A bare root whip is the cheapest and most convenient form of tree to start with. Plant this alongside the supporting structure then carefully cut the stem just above the height of the first and lowest wire. This should activate new growth buds below the cut. Select three of these to develop and rub the remaining buds away.

During the first summer, tie the soft shoots from two of the buds onto the wire, making sure they are travelling in opposite directions. The remaining shoot is encouraged to climb vertically upwards, tied to a higher line of wire; it will eventually develop into the central trunk. Aside from the three designated shoots, continue to remove any additional buds before they develop into shoots. At the beginning of the next winter, cut the developing trunk just below the second wire. Once again, new growth buds will soon emerge below the cut. Select three of these and allow them to develop into shoots.

Next summer attach two shoots to the second wire, ensuring they travel in opposite directions. Encourage the third shoot to grow vertically upwards and once sufficient height is reached, tie this to the third line. This process should be repeated each year, cutting the trunk in winter, removing all but three selected growth buds, and then securing their shoots in summer. Continue until the highest wire supports two developing branches and a vertical shoot continuing as the uppermost extension of the trunk.

Protecting fruit trees

While fruit trees can provide the most economically rewarding return for the labour and effort required to establish and maintain them, much of this will be directed toward protecting them against birds, insects, and other organisms. Since the organic philosophy is based upon promoting biodiversity and establishing harmonious relationships with nature, the strategies used to protect fruit trees need to be more sophisticated and enduring than those which only seek to remove or eliminate garden competitors. An integrated approach is recommended for coping with persistent fruit pests. In the first instance, ensuring the health and vitality of soil helps to support strong plants and lays the foundation for a balanced garden ecosystem. Because established fruit trees deplete soil nutrients, it is important to avoid the common practice of immediately replacing deceased specimens with new trees of the same variety.

Immature fruit trees grow poorly in mineral deprived soils. They are also more likely to be damaged by soil pathogens which are resisted or tolerated by established trees. Young peach trees are particularly sensitive, and may be poisoned by the residual root chemicals of older trees. Garden hygiene plays an important role in protecting plants from many types of disease and pest infestation. This involves careful monitoring of introduced garden materials, routine clearance of fallen fruit, and direct removal of any damaged or infested fruits. Maintaining a diversity of acclimatised fruit species, varieties, and other plants will promote natural competition between pests and predators. This competition helps discourage and prevent the unchecked proliferation of pest species which cause damage to fruit bearing plants and their crops.

Most regions support several bird species which feed heavily on ripe and developing fruit. The most devastating are often larger and highly intelligent birds, like parrots, and crows which can arrive in substantial flocks around the time of fruit ripening. These strong competitors have claws to hold and beaks which easily rip through the protective skin of fruits such as avocado, mango, and passionfruit. On account of their intelligence, strength and tenacity, these creatures can be extremely challenging to discourage. Smaller species like finches and sparrows are always attracted to softer fruits, and berries. They often arrive to feed at dusk or dawn and will quickly ravage these crops unless some strategic visual deterrents or physical barriers are installed to restrict their access.

Fruit cages, wire mesh, and nylon netting are all suitable for protecting organic fruit crops. Many organic fruit growers rely on permanent fruit cage structures with removable netting. This enables an effective barrier to be established immediately prior to crop ripening. During the remainder of the year, the netting can be removed to enable birds to move freely about the trees and bushes. This encourages nectar and pollen collecting species like honey eaters and those which feed on potentially destructive insects and larvae. Without their assistance, many cross pollinating species struggle to bear fruit, and among those which do, the likelihood of insect related crop damage is significantly increased. Large fruit cages provide suitable protection for most soft tree fruits and the vine and bush species including cultivated berries, currants, and grapes. Small, portable cages or cloches can be used to protect individual bunches of fruit. This approach is labour intensive, but seems to work efficiently on fruits which ripen slowly or at different rates on the same plant.

Most of the commonly applied bird deterrents are based on creating noise or visual signals which threaten and discourage birds from approaching a potentially attractive food source. Scarecrows are a traditional favourite and have been used to protect grain and fruit crops over many centuries. On commercial properties, scarecrows are often combined with randomly timed firings of blank ammunition and other non destructive explosions. High pressure water jets can discourage many smaller species but are rarely effective for the larger parrots, crows, or geese which are all notorious and persistent scavengers of fruit.

Another innovative strategy is the kites and wooden models which mimic the shadows cast by hawks, falcons, and other birds of prey. Once again, these can be useful for frightening smaller birds but larger and more intelligent species are unlikely to be discouraged for an extended period of time. Many organic gardeners and growers will invent their own unique bird deterrents, sometimes creating these from recycled household items and discarded rubbish. These range from simple mobiles of shining tinfoil and silver discs suspended from tree branches to highly complex electronic gadgets which emit shrill sounds upon detection of movement. The success of these attempts will vary from region to region, depending on the species and quantity of birds and fruit alike.

In combination with other garden competitors and beneficial organisms, birds contribute to the total ecosystem and should never be eliminated through trapping, shooting, or poisoning. These violent and negative strategies are incompatible with the organic philosophy which always seeks abundance through maintaining the essential harmony and balance found within nature. For similar reasons, domestic cats are not suitable for discouraging birds in suburban gardens. Cats are an introduced species which breed quickly to disrupt the normal distribution of predator and prey. According to their predisposition, most cats are indiscriminate hunters, killing more often than is required to sustain themselves. While they may hunt some of the fruit eating birds, they will almost certainly include the valuable insect eaters and pollinators which are rapidly disappearing from many suburban locations.

Thoughtful growers understand that most fruit eating species play an essential role in their native environments, distributing the seeds for new growth.  Because their impact upon fruit crops can be interpreted positively and at times, negatively, any decision or action that seeks to control bird populations must strike the correct balance between encouragement and deterrence. Initially, this can present a daunting challenge; however, time, careful observation and experience will ultimately make the task an easier one. 

There are several mammal species which can feed heavily on fruit crops whenever the opportunity arises. Rats and mice both contribute to enormous agricultural losses. While the majority is related to grain destruction and spoilage, both species will be attracted to easily accessible fruit crops such as strawberry, passionfruit, and gooseberry. Fruit cages with narrow gauge steel meshing will prevent access to rodents and other fruit eating creatures such as squirrel, pigs, rabbits, even the odd fox, occasionally. These competitors can also be discouraged by the presence of hunting dogs, particularly those of the terrier family.

Terriers were originally bred to a size and character which enabled them to dig down and enter the burrows of ground dwelling animals such as rabbits, badger, and foxes. The smaller breeds are particularly useful for controlling rats without the constant use of traps and poisonous baits. Less common animals such as fruit bats and possums can be a significant threat to fruit crops in some areas. The heavy bodied fruit bats known as flying foxes are notorious in tropical and subtropical environments. Living in colonies, these intelligent and social animals can descend on fruit plantations in sufficiently large numbers to strip valuable crops and cause extensive damage to trees. Under these circumstances, frustrated growers often feel compelled to shoot or poison flying foxes. In an attempt to prevent this, researchers have looked at unique prevention strategies based on high frequency sounds and discouraging smells. Hopefully, these might prove effective and become widely available in the near future.

Possums are agile and adaptable tree dwellers, with a voracious appetite for green shoots, fruit, and sweet vegetables. Being largely nocturnal, local populations can be difficult to evaluate. Once again, the mainstream approach to possum control is an unfortunate combination of trapping, shooting, and baiting. Fruit cages can be effective for protecting organic crops; however trees can still be severely damaged by possums stripping green shoots and bark. Mature trees can be protected to a certain extent by sheet metal bands encircling their trunks. This prevents trees being directly scaled. In order for this strategy to be effective, other aerial access points such as adjoining trees, telegraph poles, fencing, and flat roofs must also be carefully secured.

Fruit thinning

When integrated within an organic approach, fruit thinning is a useful task which ultimately improves the resilience and vigour of plants. Skilfully applied thinning will help to maintain soil fertility by stabilising the seasonal demand and take-up of important minerals and organic nutrients. It can also enhance the quality and flavour characteristics of each mature crop. Because selective breeding and biotechnology now dominate many aspects of mainstream fruit production, fruit thinning is less commonly practiced and has even been marginalised within the organic sector for many common fruit species. With their ability to manipulate key characteristics of the reproductive cycle, agricultural scientists have developed plants which can produce reasonably fixed quantities of fruit each year. While this provides a high degree of predictability and convenience for some large commercial growers, there are problems associated with the short sighted approach and practices encouraged by these new technologies.

The traditional purpose of fruit thinning was to conserve resources and extend the useful life of plants. This made intuitive sense when fruit trees or vines were considered to be an expensive capital investment, to be carefully maintained and improved over an extended period of time, typically several decades. Compare this long term and sustainable approach with those currently encouraged by the biotech and agricultural research conglomerates. In the realm of fruit production, biotechnology firms are looking to design plants which mature quickly and produce annual crops with a minimum degree of physical effort.

Instead of focusing on organic nutrient replacement and the development of healthy soils, the emphasis is placed upon the plants themselves. On account of their altered characteristics, many trees will be treated with multiple chemicals to control their rapid development and productive output. Instead of progressing through a complete lifecycle, some of the altered plants produce sterile fruit, with seeds that can never sustain new life. This underlies an important component of a current economic strategy which involves securing exclusive patents for modified fruit varieties. At some point in the future, this practice may restrict the availability of fruit varieties which fail to meet the imposed criteria.

From the organic and holistic perspective, fruit thinning is linked with the need to integrate soil fertility, plant development, and crop delivery. This requires preparation based on a practical awareness and application of those natural cycles which support sustainable biological replenishment and renewal. Most fruit varieties take at least several years to mature, with an ability to slow or increase their rate of development according to climate, soil conditions, and related environmental factors. In some situations, early fruiting can result in plants with stunted growth, reproductive defects, and low resilience against disease and pestilence. When left to ripen, it is the seeds inside the fruit which exhaust the immature plant. Seeds contain a concentrated supply of protein, fats, and minerals. When fruit is allowed to develop, the immature plant must obtain these nutrients from the soil and expend additional resources to enhance the functional capacity and protective environment for each seed.

With the exception of cherries, pears, and some older citrus varieties, most of the tree fruits will produce higher quality crops when they are thinned before seasonal maturity. Most sources recommend an aggressive approach, with the early removal of at least half the emerging crop. In naturally dry conditions, the remaining yield of fruit will decrease substantially in weight but is more likely to develop intense flavour characteristics. This is particularly the case for olives, grapes, apricots, and tomatoes and figs to a lesser extent. For other well known species such as plums, apples, and peaches, the fruit left after thinning tends to grow larger so the total yield will not necessarily be decreased in weight. A large percentage of the additional weight will be water, however, when care is taken to maintain soils with sufficient organic material, there is likely to be some increase in the overall quality and flavour characteristics of the thinned crop.

Under natural growing conditions, some mature fruit varieties will crop in alternate years. In order to encourage production every year, some growers will deliberately remove at least half of the emerging fruit during the initial and subsequent cropping seasons. To achieve the best result, thinning should always be carried out before the fruit is half grown. With early attempts, this practice is more than likely to promote uneven crop yields. Over time, a consistent approach to fruit thinning can enable seasonal crops to become balanced and regular. The eventual outcome, however, will always depend upon the overall condition of individual trees, and the suitability of local growing conditions.

Another important reason for thinning fruit is to prevent isolated occurrences of disease and pest from becoming established within a crop. Many species of fruit tree and vine are susceptible to bacterial and viral infections, along with a wide range of insect pests. In order to cause significant damage, plant diseases must be maintained on a permanent or temporary host. Any infected tree within an orchard represents a serious situation because the disease pathogens are most likely to have become established. In most cases, the introduction of disease begins with a temporary host. Plant diseases can survive from one growing season to the next in localised and sporadic clusters.

Infected plant materials including fruit, must be removed and destroyed to prevent the risk of host permanence, and a widely distributed range of incidence. In addition to keeping the ground clear of debris such as kitchen scraps, animal faeces, plastic containers, and insect larvae, it is important to periodically inspect the plant itself and to carefully remove any fruit which appears bruised, ripe, mottled, or misshapen in any way. Sometimes there will be clear evidence of problems, such as the deformed shapes and blistered patches on apples affected by fungal scab. On many occasions, however, there are only subtle indications which may pass unnoticed until harvesting time. The best approach is to consult local fruit growers who have gained sufficient knowledge and experience to identify the early signs and symptoms.

Buying organic fruit plants

There are several considerations and strategies which experienced gardeners will apply before purchasing their organic fruit plants. The first of these concerns the reputation and certification of the local growers, plant nurseries or garden centres where fruit trees and vines are sold as juvenile stock. To maintain their organic certification, plant wholesalers and retailers are obliged to comply with a strict code of technical management which applies to all areas of plant husbandry including cultivation, propagation, disease prevention, treatment, and the associated aspects of soil improvement, composting, and mulching. Evidence of an approved organic certification is one of the principal safeguards to eliminate inferior stock and that which has been developed for commercial fruit production without due consideration of ecological principles affecting safety, nutrition, and sustainability.

There are a number of organic nurseries which now have extensive catalogues accessible over the internet. These allow keen gardeners to search for scarce fruit varieties and place orders without necessarily visiting the nursery or farm. Online catalogues can also be useful for choosing a selection of varieties which enable some fruits to be harvested over an extended period. Apples, for example, can be picked for six months of the year providing the garden is suitably stocked with early, mid, and late-fruiting varieties. Selecting several varieties also reduces the likelihood of an entire crop being lost due to unpredictable patterns of weather, pestilence, or disease. 

From an organic perspective, there are reasons to appreciate and favour many of the traditional and older varieties of fruit trees and vines. To begin with, most of these plants will have a track record of cultivation and management from periods dating before the extensive use of agricultural chemicals. Some gardeners like to use the year of introduction as a general guide, with an assumption that varieties with long sustained popularity must have strong and dependable attributes. While such reasoning makes good sense, there are numerous varieties with excellent characteristics which are now extremely rare, extinct, or not readily available to the average gardener. Unfortunately, most widely distributed varieties have their characteristics largely determined by commercial growers and the presentation needs of food retailers. This situation appears to have compromised important nutritional and aesthetic elements including flavour, aroma, shape, and texture. Listen to the comments of anyone who has experienced the difference between a traditional variety of peach or table grape and those which are offered in the major supermarket chains today.

Since the passing of legislation which enables the patenting of new varieties, there has been accelerated development within the scientific field of crop modification. Agricultural and biochemical research companies now invest substantial resources to develop new varieties of fruit tree and vines with specific attributes such as accelerated growth, maximum yield per plant, and the ability to bear fruit out of season. They are also interested in developing fruit with extended storage capabilities, and uniform appearance, including tough outer skins to resist bruising, mottling and other visual defects which can influence market demand and profitability.

Traditional varieties often bear fruit which is smaller, randomly shaped, and susceptible to bruising. Often perceived negatively, these inherent characteristics are balanced by a richness of flavour, aroma, and texture, particularly for fruit which is grown according to organic principles. In most cases, traditional varieties maintain the vigour of original hybrids, making them highly adaptable and suitable for the application of organic techniques.

In addition to historical pedigree, selection of fruit varieties should be based on factors like personal taste and convenience. Under equivalent growing conditions, individual varieties can exhibit significant differences in the elemental composition of their fruits and berries. The taste and flavour will be affected by multiple factors such as the overall sugar content, fluid volumes, acidity, and fibre content. Raising many types of fruit requires a significant commitment in terms of garden space and time while plants mature. For this reason alone, it is worthwhile ensuring that an informed decision is made with respect to variety selection. If it is inconvenient to visit an orchard or grower with mature specimens, there may be opportunities to purchase or taste examples of the fruit at organic produce suppliers, markets, and agricultural displays. For technical information and descriptions of specific fruit characteristics, an internet search or reference library with organic grower manuals and related publications are the best places to start.

Modestly experienced growers will find the smaller varieties of fruit tree and compact vines easier to manage and maintain. If trees are kept small it will be possible to plant a greater number and variety within a limited space. At the same time small trees can be pruned more efficiently than large specimens. Protecting ripening fruit with mesh netting and other physical barriers is also more convenient. Many of the commercially available varieties of fruit tree are grafted onto special rootstocks. In these instances, the height and size of each mature tree will be largely determined by the type of rootstock selected. A dwarfing rootstock, for example, will prevent the tree from growing as large as it would when grown on its own roots. Specialist rootstock can also be chosen to take advantage of local growing conditions. Trees planted in excessively dry and sandy soils will benefit from a resilient and deep running rootstock whereas those establishing in heavy clay soils might do better with a fungus and rot resistant rootstock. Because most vine and cane fruit are left to grow on their own roots, there is less opportunity to manoeuvre against unsuitable conditions.

Consistent with all plants purchased, fruit bearing trees should be the most vigorous specimens available, raised in healthy soils according to organic principles. Favour trees with straight, sturdy trunks and well spaced branches which radiate outwards with load bearing elevation. There must be considerable strength and soundness in the forks connecting the trunk and branches. This is an important factor for determining how much fruit a mature tree will be capable of supporting. For grafted varieties, it is important to check the integrity of the union between the fruiting section and the rootstock. The graft should be fully healed and stable in its appearance. Try to avoid plants with the graft buried beneath soil or those which are cracked and weeping sap.

Most citrus and stone fruit varieties are susceptible to various types of canker and leaf disease. These can be present with mild symptoms, often requiring specialist expertise to identify. In the absence of this, warning signals include rough and patchy areas of bark, and slightly curled foliage with a silvery sheen.

Harvesting organically grown fruit

On account of their decision to avoid chemical agents, organic fruit growers tend to assert less control over the timing of their crops and must depend upon favourable conditions and highly effective management at the point of harvest. When utilised efficiently, the labour intensive requirements of organic production help to integrate multiple activities throughout seasonal cycles, from sowing to harvest, then recovery. This means that each task depends upon the quality of observation and effort applied in earlier and subsequent activities.

An experienced grower understands that successful harvesting cannot be separated from soil quality, climate characteristics, and patience. One of the basic challenges of successful harvesting is determining the correct time to pick. At present, there is a continuing trend towards harvesting immature fruit. This practice appears to be sustained by the high volume retailers of fresh produce such as the supermarkets, catering agencies, and convenience stores. With their ability to maintain produce in cold storage for extended periods, they have the capacity to manipulate market cycles for economic advantage. This is particularly true for exotic and out of season produce, which is demanded by a proportion of consumers who pay higher prices compared to standard items.

Aside from encouraging the further use of chemicals in the form of preservative and ripening agents, there are clear reasons why most fruits should not be immature when harvested. In the first instance, properly ripened fruit tastes better. All seasonal fruits are distinguished by their complex mixtures of natural compounds including sugars, cellulose, water, minerals, food acids, aromatic oils, and plant hormones. In the unripened state, these mixtures are frequently dominated by elements which do not enhance their palatability. For example, unripened apples and citrus fruits taste harshly acidic, while unripened pears, apricots, and peaches taste dry and fibrous. Fully ripened fruit is much easier to digest than the alternative. This is obvious to anyone who once experienced stomach pains from a childhood feast of green plums or unripened apples. Ripe fruit does not upset the stomach, and it contains a supply of enzymes to help the body absorb and utilise most of the fruit sugars and nutrients.

A further reason for avoiding the harvesting of immature fruit has to do with the plants themselves. Seasonal fruit production can place heavy demands on the availability of soil minerals, water, and other resources. When a tree, bush, or vine is harvested too early, there can be a sudden failure of biological communication and the potential for prolonged reproductive cycles. Under certain circumstances this will cause the formation of an additional crop in the same season. Even if the additional crop fails to mature properly, the parent plant may experience an exhaustion which compromises future productivity and increases susceptibility to opportunistic parasites and disease.

It is important to remember that fruit from the same plant does not necessarily ripen uniformly. Fruit which emerges on the sunny side of a large tree, or bush may require harvesting a week or two earlier than the remaining crop. In most cases, fruit should separate from the tree or bush with the stalks intact.

Summer fruits should be picked as soon as they are ripe, or just slightly beforehand for the berries, melons, and larger mangoes which can be matured for several days on a sunny window. When they begin fruiting, strawberry plants should be checked every day, and the strawberries harvested as soon as they are red all over. These can be eaten immediately, made into jams, frozen, or kept cool and well ventilated for use within several days. Raspberries and blackberries are delicate and larger crops will provide many hours of labour for a competent harvesting team. Strains of these and other cane fruits are now selectively bred to eliminate thorns and produce higher yields of fruit. Some of the older hybrid stocks have remained popular with organic growers. Their lower yields are offset by superior flavour characteristics and the sharp thorns do provide some natural protection against voracious birds, and other creatures attracted to the sweet fruit. These small berries should be picked between the thumb and forefinger then placed in punnet containers with adequate ventilation to prevent them sweating.

Larger and heavier fruit such as apples or peaches should be gently twisted in the palm of the hand. When ready for harvesting, the fruit will separate cleanly. Slightly firm plums can be stored in the refrigerator then removed a few days before eating. Despite frequent claims to the contrary, stone fruit such as cherries, peaches and nectarines, do not gain additional flavour after picking and should not be harvested until ready. Like other seasonal varieties, they are best when consumed immediately or soon after harvesting although freshness can be maintained for several days in cool storage. 

Along with appropriate storage techniques, care and effort invested during the harvest period will influence the quality and longevity of seasonal fruit crops. Potential difficulties can be alleviated by a strict rejection of any items with broken skin or evidence of pest infestation or disease. To preserve garden hygiene, any diseased fruit must be carefully buried or incinerated. Badly damaged fruit should be composted or provided in a separate location to help feed beneficial wildlife.

Once removed from their parent plant, fruit crops cannot access the biological mechanisms which previously enabled them to resist bacteria and repair physical damage. During and subsequent to harvesting, gentle but secure handling is essential to prevent the bruising and cuts which will initiate fermentation and decay. Even firm, tough skinned fruit such as avocado and lemons can be easily bruised through rough handling. In these instances the damage may not be immediately obvious so visual inspection of recently harvested fruit must be conducted at regular intervals. As long as it is clean and free of disease, physically damaged fruit can be used in many recipes, and as the key ingredient for sweet sauces and traditional preserves.

Unfortunately, enormous volumes of fresh produce, including fruit, are wastefully discarded every growing season. In some cases, the produce warrants a high or premium grading yet is destroyed to avoid surplus commodity prices, or, as in the wine industry, to restrict potential competitors from accessing new markets. Most of the discarded fruit, however, will be of average or lower quality. As a rule, the grading systems are biased to favour the largest and most visually impressive produce as opposed to smaller items which can possess equivalent or even superior nutritional qualities.

In their ongoing efforts to reverse the emphasis on visual appearance, several organic certification authorities are reviewing proposals for alternative grading systems. These are based upon the assessment of nutritional factors, flavour characteristics, and an additional component related to the sustainability of production. The organic movement seeks to differentiate itself from mainstream agriculture by educating consumers about the benefits of nutritious food, while simultaneously promoting careful management and conservation of natural resources.

Growing fruit in containers

Many fruit trees or vines can be successfully raised in containers. Within the average suburban allocation, container planting enables a wider diversity of species to be trialled, particularly when there is an appreciation of the various micro-climates and other growing conditions. In most regions it is important to make use of sunny, but reasonably sheltered spaces around walls, pathways, trees, and other decorative features. With the exception of very large specimens, container growing has the advantage of portability. Containers can be moved to accommodate seasonal shifts and to avoid the impact of storms and predatory insect attack. Water supply and drainage can be closely monitored and problems are often easily fixed, before any serious damage is suffered by plants.

Growing fruit in containers can be particularly suitable when a large section of garden is devoted to vegetables or flowers. Depending on the type of fruit chosen, watering and cultivation requirements may be incompatible with other plants. Despite their need for individualised attention, fruit trees and vines will benefit from basic organic techniques such as natural soil enrichment and companion planting.

Most reputable organic nurseries, offer an excellent variety of miniature fruit trees and vines which should be acclimatised and suitable for localised conditions. Smaller growing citrus trees like mandarins, cumquats, and meyer lemons grow well in large containers. When maintained in healthy condition, the trees should have glossy green leaves throughout the year and delightfully fragrant blossoms in Spring. Upright varieties of apple and pear grafted onto dwarf rootstock are also well suited to container growing, particularly in cooler climates.

Some other fruits to consider for a container garden are figs, avocado, olives, guava, and lychee. A good strategy involves choosing a selection which provides edible fruit several times throughout the year. An alternative is to focus on those seasonal fruits which can be readily preserved in jams, chutneys, and relish. Some gardeners prefer fruit trees that require little or no maintenance while others base their selection on favourite and preferred eating varieties. Several popular fruit species can be challenging to raise on account of their predisposition to disease or complicated pollination requirements. Examples include stone fruit like cherries, peaches, and some of the traditional varieties of grape and strawberry.

It is most important to choose the correct size, shape, and composition of container for fruit trees and vines. While attractive to look at, very small pots and containers can be difficult to manage, mainly on account of their tendency to absorb heat rapidly and dry out.  This drying will often create a surface crust which repels water and prevents normal drainage. In these situations the container must be removed from direct sun then placed in a bowl of water to enable the plant roots to absorb moisture from below. Containers made from plastic and other synthetic compounds are inexpensive to purchase but do not contribute much in the way of aesthetic beauty or elegance. In addition to this, the manufacture of plastic releases toxins which are damaging to the environment. On the positive side however, plastic is considerably lighter and less prone to breakage than other suitable materials.

The traditional material for garden containers is terracotta, beautiful in appearance due to variations in colour and texture which become exaggerated with weathering. Due to their permeability, terracotta containers generally require more frequent watering than plastic. Concrete is somewhat less permeable than terracotta however the larger sizes are terribly heavy and awkward to move about. Don’t even think about moving them when they are planted out with soil and potting mixtures.

Depending on the style of garden, various discarded objects can be recycled for good use. Once drainage holes are drilled into their base, empty wine barrels make suitable containers for small fruit trees. Old fashioned laundry tubs make excellent containers for spreading vines such as grapes, blackcurrant, and passionfruit. When correctly chosen, the original container will be sufficiently large to accommodate the mature specimen, without the need for replacement or replanting. 

When preparing a container, ensuring adequate drainage is the initial and most important priority. A layer of broken crock, bricks, or volcanic stones is followed by several inches of coarse gravel, raked level. Before proceeding it is a good idea to pour water over the gravel and ensure that it drains rapidly through the holes at the base of the container. The next layer is the humus rich potting mixture that will provide essential nutrients, as well as sufficient water and oxygen for the growing plants. The potting mixture can be prepared with natural organic ingredients or one of the commercially blended organic varieties which avoid the artificial fertilisers and other chemically treated ingredients. An even sprinkling of sandy soil can be used for the uppermost layer, allowing the container to remain unfilled by at least an inch. The new container should be watered and kept moist until planting. The ideal situation is for the mixture to support an even distribution of moisture. Elevating the containers on bricks or other suitable supports, will enable excess moisture to drain freely from the holes in the under surface. This practice prevents easy access to many crawling insect pests and also protects against invading roots from grasses and weeds.

Unlike container grown herbs and most flowering annuals, fruit trees and vines need to be provided with additional nutrients, particularly when the fruit is beginning to set. Immature trees need to become established before regular manuring due to the sensitivity of their roots. A few handfuls of old, well rotted compost or very weak liquid manure can be sparingly applied to young trees every few months. Once established, small amounts of organic compost should be mixed into the surface every other week. Worm compost is a very complete source of natural nutrients. Another option is to use finely shredded seaweed or dried horse manure sourced from organic certified pasture. These treatments should prevent the mineral deficiencies which frequently underlie fruit rotting and crop failures. To discourage disease, fallen fruit and leaves must be removed each week. Any fruit exhibiting symptoms of fruit fly or other infestation should be excluded from the compost heap and safely buried or incinerated.

To bear a decent crop of organic fruit each year, most container grown fruit trees require some periodic shaping of their branch and foliage structure. Organic tree nurseries tend to shape their juvenile trees into a chalice configuration with multiple branches spreading outwards to provide an open centre. An alternative is the pyramid shape with a well defined vertical trunk from which a fixed number of lateral branches radiate. The chalice configuration is particularly suitable in colder climates since it allows more sunlight to reach the central portion of the tree. In very dry and heat prone areas, the pyramid shape provides additional shade and sun protection for the centre. Pruning container grown fruit trees follows a similar pattern to ground dwellers, although spatial awareness and physical access should be easier for the container grown specimens. In general terms, efficient pruning techniques require an ability to visualise and work within three dimensional space. Similar to sculpting and other creative pursuits, pruning depends on a number of skills which can be gained through a combination of careful observation, practice, and critical evaluation.

Choosing a site for growing organic fruit

In addition to plenty of sunlight, fruit trees and vines need to be sheltered from the wind. Even moderate exposure will create problems, such as falling fruit, damaged growth and the discouragement of pollinating insects. Sometimes, it is a good idea to plant rows of taller trees to form a natural wind barrier for protecting tender varieties like peaches and pears. Their distance and eventual height must be carefully judged because the fruit trees will hardly appreciate close competition or heavy shade from large neighbours.

Similarly, it is a good idea to avoid cold pockets and hollows that may be subject to extended frosts during winter. The short lived blossoms of many fruit bearing trees are particularly vulnerable and may require some temporary protection in the form of a portable solar frame, a greenhouse or similar temperature controlled environment.

The best sites for planting fruit bearing tees will have deep soils that are rich in complex organic nutrients and minerals. Apple and pear varieties usually prefer the slightly acidic soil of coastal regions, while many of the stone fruit varieties like cherries and plums do better with the mild alkalinity of inland soils. With the exception of blueberries, cranberries and their lesser known relatives, fruit bearing species do not tolerate damp or poorly drained soils that experience frequent waterlogging.

Sunny patios and balconies are often suitable locations for susceptible varieties, particularly those growing in latitudes cooler than their preferred climate range. Extra heat will be generated with a clear canopy of solar insulation and any smaller trees or shrubs housed in pots can be moved indoors for the coldest months during winter. Careful positioning alongside a large clear window or sliding glass door should ensure that sufficient sunlight is available for most of the day during fine conditions.

Fruit trees and vines seem to benefit from planting alongside a diverse range of companion species. Common culinary herbs such as rosemary, thyme, sage, chives, nasturtiums, and garlic usually work well. In addition to discouraging fruit destroying insects and larvae, the aromatic herbs are widely believed to improve the flavour of citrus species like lemon, lime, and mandarins as well as most grape varieties including muscat, cornichon and trebbiano. There is something vibrant and traditional about rows of organic herbs planted between rows of fruit trees or vines. Many organic fruit producers have followed this approach and it also seems to suit boutique vineyards. Amateur gardeners will benefit from visiting one of these innovative setups, particularly if someone knowledgeable is available to explain their particular layout and to answer questions.

Juvenile plants will generally require more space and attention than established fruit trees and vines. Ideally, the preparation phase of the garden will allow a reasonable circumference of dedicated space for each new tree or shrub planted. The apportioned space must take several factors into account including an optimum availability of sunlight for the maturing plant along with the water and nutrient requirement of the parent rootstock. According to the qualities of their soil and the species in question, organic fruit producers will estimate the appropriate distances between each new sapling. When planting new trees, experienced growers will also minimise any physical disruption to the soil. It is not advisable to vigorously clear selected ground before planting, since the natural drainage qualities of soil will be compromised by widespread digging or raking across the surface. Once a young tree is planted, a good quality organic mulch will provide ideal moisture conservation along with some natural protection against weeds and other unwanted plants.

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