It’s possible that the supermarket concept evolved during the Great Depression. “Pile high, sell low” was the strategy of King Kullen, a famous New York grocer during the 1930s. Since that time, supermarkets have merged within our contemporary economy where they have been been both popularised and demonised. From the perspective of many consumers, supermarkets provide an essential vehicle for reliable convenience and access to organic groceries and fresh produce. Alternatively, there are traditionalists who fear the influence of large organisations and the pressures of economic rationalisation which may be exerted within the general agricultural and organic agricultural sectors.

A fundamental complaint against established supermarkets is their ability to restrict competition according to their combined purchasing strengths, discount pricing, and significantly reduced labour costs. It’s extremely difficult for small operators to consistently match these overall levels of price, quality, and service. Of course, the supermarket’s advantage depends on extremely narrow operating margins throughout their entire supply chain. This also results in difficult choices and compromises for those farmers and other business operators who negotiate their annual contracts with the highly centralised and cost conscious administrations.

Depending on the size and scale of their operation, it’s not uncommon for supermarket chains to source their fresh produce from wholly dedicated and subsidiary farms. For the purposes of this discussion, wholly dedicated refers to primary producers with contractual obligations to supply significant quantities consistent to an agreed standard. Subsidiary farms are effectively owned by the supermarket which thereby exercises control of quality management and accreditation resources. In those situations where a supermarket promotes its own organically certified range of produce, there is potential for conflict with external certification authorities and other regulatory bodies.

Leading organic certification authorities are frequently compelled to speak or lobby on behalf of constituent producers. On occassions, an institution like the Soil Association will address specific concerns of small scale organic producers with widespread utilisation of public sympathy through their media resources. For example, there are valid fears that supermarkets have the capacity to marginalise local growers when they import organically certified produce from abroad. The negative aspects of an unrestricted importation policy may include income exploitation for impoverished workers, often accompanied by the absence or greatly reduced influence of external and independent certification schedules. From the perspective of certification authorities, it’s the absence of organic farming standards and protocol which must eventually contribute to significant decreases in the overall quality and nutritional value of the foods being offered to local consumers. There’s also a range of ecologically based arguments which oppose the lack of energy efficiency in relation to common forms of bulk storage, handling, and transportation over vast distances.

Representatives of major supermarket conglomerates tend to dismiss most of the above criticisms as simplistic or narrow minded utopianism. They refer to the inevitability of global economy and clearly prefer to position themselves as agents of consumer choice while maintaining their marketing strategies of broad inclusion. Upon entering the mainstream retail environment, organics is no longer perceived as elitist or the exclusive province of sandal wearing fanatics. This is acceptable for the average individual who wishes to combine a range of organically certified and standard foods within their weekly budget.

The conclusion rests with the consumer. As larger percentages of the population become familiar with organic food and the principles behind its production, there’s an ever increasing trend to rationalise the output capacity. This generally means pursuing levels of agricultural specialisation which result in efficiencies of scale. Rather than a traditional organic model of mixed farming, the supermarkets will ultimately support the progression towards monoculture. Of course there are risks involved. To offset these, however, there is high probability that larger volumes of safe and healthy foods will be generated into the future.

Obesity is already a major problem in much of the Western world. And with levels of morbid obesity predicted to increase ten-fold within the next twenty years, many health professionals are calling for something to be done now to address the problem. One of the culprits fueling high obesity levels is the inclusion of trans fat in many of the foods we commonly eat.

What are trans fats?

According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, “trans fat is made when manufacturers add hydrogen to vegetable oil – a process called hydrogenation. Hydrogenation increases the shelf life and flavor stability of foods containing these fats”.

Where are they found?

Trans fats are a key ingredient in processed foods such as margarine, biscuits, crisps, snacks, and other foods made with or fried in partially hydrogenated oils. Unlike other fats, the majority of trans fat is formed when food manufacturers turn liquid oils into solid fats like shortening and hard margarine.

What does trans fat do to the human body?

Trans fat raises low-density lipoprotein (LDL), or “bad cholesterol,” levels in the blood. This increases the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD). According to the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute of the National Institutes of Health, more than 12.5 million Americans have CHD, and more than 500,000 die each year. That makes CHD one of the leading causes of death in the United States.

So trans fats aren’t good for us. But given that they are so pervasive, how do we avoid them? Here are six simple steps to help you limit your dietary intake of trans fats.

Have plenty of fruit and vegetables on hand – ready access to fresh fruits and vegetables, preferably of the organic variety, is a great way for children (and adults) to avoid the temptation to snack on foods laden with trans fat. It’s also a good idea to consider juicing or cooking with any fruits and vegetables that are no longer crisp and inviting. That way, whenever you eat raw fruit and vegetables, your experience will serve as a positive affirmation of your continued desire to consume raw organic foods.

Make snacks a treat – better still, avoid conventional snacks such as potato chips and cookies altogether. This is particularly important if you have young children. Research indicates that children exposed early in life to foods such as cookies, candies and chips are more likely to continue to consume these types of foods throughout adulthood.

Prepare a shopping list before heading to the store – you will know exactly what you need and you’ll be better able to resist buying on impulse. Many of the impulse buying items thrust upon us on our way to the checkout counter contain high quantities of trans fat. Unless an item’s on your list, ignore the colourful packaging and just keep on walking.

Eat at home – no one cares about your family’s health more than you do, so try and eat at home as often as possible. Fast food chains exist to generate profit for their shareholders. Unless they perceive there to be increased risk of litigation, or the threat of some government-imposed mandate banning trans fats, fast food operators are unlikely to consider the health and well-being of their customers. Rest assured your health and well-being does not rate high among their list of priorities. Why not give fast food the flick and check out your local slow food chapter? It’s amazing the impact that eating nutritious meals at home can have on your family’s health and happiness.

Stay away from margarine – margarine is unnatural and jam-packed with trans fat. If a recipe you’re making calls for the use of butter or margarine – choose butter, preferably a good quality organic butter.

Prepare lunch the night before – when we’re busy (as most of us are during the day) it’s easy to neglect lunch. This makes lunch a high-risk meal for many of us. When midday rolls around and you can feel your stomach grumbling, it’s generally too late. Unless you’ve got something ready to go that you’ve prepared the night before, it’s just too easy to make poor food choices. Something easy, something sweet, something salty, something packaged, something takeaway, something fried – all options that are readily available at lunchtime. Not surprisingly, these choices don’t even enter into consideration when we take the time to prepare a wholemeal salad sandwich at home the night before.

Young children look to the adults in their lives for guidance. Our own attitude to food and the types of food we consume on a regular basis are likely to influence the food choices our children make later in life. So, by taking care of ourselves and avoiding options laden with trans fat whenever possible, we may just be providing the next generation with the reinforcement they need to make positive food decisions. If this helps eradicate a range of preventable lifestyle diseases, it’s got to be the right thing to do.

Over recent years there has been a steady increase in the availability of specialty drinks containing organically certified ingredients. For the sake of descriptive accuracy, specialty drinks can be categorised according to their distinctive properties and their targeted market.

The first group are the manufactured drinks associated with therapeutic health benefits. The primary consumers of therapeutic drinks are health conscious individuals between thirty and fifty five years of age. When interviewed, the majority of consumers claim to select these products based on a combination of current scientific evidence, the recommendation of health professionals, and advertising claims. The most popular products are those containing antioxidant compounds and vitamins.

The next category includes electrolyte replacement and sports drinks. These are primarily aimed at the youthfully active, between fifteen and thirty years. Many of these products are marketed through elite and developing athlete sponsorship deals and the promotion of selected sporting events.

Recreational and caffeinated energy drinks constitute a third category. With the exception of some leading brands, these products tend to be narrowly profiled toward particular socio-cultural groups within the fifteen to forty year age bracket. For example, one product we investigated was exclusively restricted to hotels and nightclubs despite being a non-alcoholic beverage. A separate trio of high caffeine energy drinks was launched at a conference attended by recent law graduates.

The fourth category to be discussed here encompasses the juice drinks and cordials which are formulated to appeal to children between one and ten years of age. Many of these are associated with popular media, animated cartoon, and computer games imagery.

Health promotion

Organic drinks offering therapeutic health benefits are now widely available in whole food stores, supermarkets, gymnasiums, and health retreats. In many respects, their popularity is determined by the overall quality and acceptance of the wider range of manufactured products known as functional foods. This category emerged from Japan in the late eighties and was originally defined to identify processed foods which contain ingredients to enhance or protect specific bodily functions.

The current definition of functional food appears to have widened to include natural substances with the potential for widely distributed physiological benefits. Examples of these include products containing probiotics, green tea and olive leaf extracts, acai berries, and various herbal compounds like ginko, liquorice, and sarsparilla.

Drinks containing green tea extracts and acai berries have been promoted for their antioxidant properties and complex polyphenols which are believed to neutralise oxidated molecules which can progressively damage living tissue. Organic certification provides an assurance that these products contain ingredients derived from uncontaminated sources, with an emphasis upon maintaining the integrity of their natural therapeutic properties.

Sports drinks

The organically certified sports drinks are primarily designed for athletes and active individuals who need to replace fluids, glucose, and electrolytes, during, and after strenuous periods of exercise.

Consultant sports physiologist Kerrie Burt recommends drinking at least two glasses of plain water prior to exercising. “Drinks containing glucose and electrolyte will actually restrict the effective absorption of water during this time. They are more effective at delivering the mixture of fluids, glucose, and electrolyte required once the body is heated and actively engaged in physical activity. We now talk about cells in terms of their fluid storage capacity”, advises Ms Burt. “We’re looking for good supplies of intracellular fluid before an event. Once core temperature rises, the fluid gets released from the cells to enable evaporative cooling across the skin. At the same time muscles and organs have an increased demand for energy as well as the soluble minerals which regulate their increased metabolic functioning”.

She believes that sports drinks are more important than most people realise. “There have been some sarcastic comments about the sports drink industry, but you only hear praise from the coaches and athletes”, says Ms Burt. The science is very advanced and the organically certified products are right on the cutting edge.

Energy drinks

Organic energy drinks are a relatively new concept. Until recently most of these products were based on the conventional formula of carbonated water, sugar, caffeine, various flavourings and preservative. With the increased competition among established and emerging products, several manufacturers have focused on healthier organic products. These are often based on sophisticated yet natural juice flavours like cranberry, guarana, and lychee. They typically contain less added sugar and caffeine than regular energy drinks, although they may contain herbal supplements like ginko which is known to improve memory and concentration. The emerging markets for these products include China, and much of South East Asia.

Drinks for children

While addressing health concerns of parents and caregivers, organic products designed for children must also accommodate taste preferences which may not necessarily apply to adults. This is particularly true of the processed fruit juices and cordials which are often sweetened with sugar and other natural food additives.

When asked for their comments, individuals purchasing these products were somewhat ambivalent on the issue of sugar content. While there was widespread acknowledgement that excessive dietary sugar leads to problems with obesity and dental decay, there was also a belief that healthy kids tend to restrict their own sugar intake, providing they have access to a well balanced diet most of the time.

The adults interviewed were more concerned about the possibility of pesticide and other chemical compounds entering the food chain and affecting their child’s development. Children are more susceptible to a wide range of chemical pollutants and toxins due to the immaturity of their excretory organs and immune systems. Because they contain fruit concentrates sourced from local and overseas suppliers, many conventional juice products contain residual traces of organophosphate and carbamate compounds.

Organic juices and cordials are made from fruit which is raised naturally, without chemical interference. When you find organic varieties the kids enjoy, make use of them as a special treat in preference to conventional varieties. However, make sure your children are also drinking plenty of water and milk, preferably certified organic milk.

Soybeans contain higher amounts of protein and fat than similar plant based foods. They contain many of the essential amino acids along with B group vitamins and minerals. Soybeans are also a rich source of isoflavones and phyto oestrogens, the natural plant hormones which are now believed to protect the body against certain forms of cancer, heart disease, and osteoporosis. They have been cultivated as an important food source in China, Japan, and Korea for thousands of years. In Japan today, soybean products are still used in preference to most animal sourced dairy items. As part of their traditional approach to food, the Japanese have developed very precise and accurate techniques for evaluating the quality of soybeans.

Until recently, the western application of soybeans was limited to lower grade varieties which were mainly harvested for applications in the processed food industry or as a protein rich feed for farm animals. There had also been interest in promoting higher quality soybeans as a staple food for regions with marginal and emerging economies.

Genetic modification

Developments in biotechnology have led to modification of soybean strains which enable them to resist widespread and repeated applications of herbicide used to control weeds after sowing. This has increased the operational scale and efficiency of large output producers but has also concentrated unprecedented economic influence with organisations in control of the new technologies.

With a lack of research-based evidence, many of the earlier debates and controversies regarding genetically modified foods appear to have subsided. An obvious exception is perhaps, the resistance among parents and child health workers who refuse to accept assurances that modified soy ingredients are appropriate for use in infant formula. Soy protein isolates are currently used in several of the products which are commonly prescribed for lactose intolerant infants and those with specific allergies to dairy foods.

Pesticide contamination

Conventionally produced soybeans often contain traces of pesticide and other agricultural chemicals. Since most modern pesticides are carefully designed to break down to less harmful compounds over time, dangerous levels of contamination will usually arise from persistent soil residues of banned substances like dieldrin.

Organic soybean crops

To meet organic certification standards, producers undertake comprehensive soil testing to exclude the possibility of pesticide contamination from previous applications. All forms of genetic modification are specifically prohibited under organic certification guidelines. High quality, organically produced soybeans can be sourced from many countries, although these now command significant premiums over the market price for conventional or genetically modified produce. Because they remain susceptible to several species of insect pest, organic producers usually rotate their soybeans with corn, oats, wheat, and other grains. When grown intermittently, every third season for example, the normal development cycle for many of these pests is disrupted.

As a food source

In their basic form, soybeans are difficult to digest. Anyone attempting to prepare them is likely to be confronted with a tough, dry, and bitter tasting bean which doesn’t appear overly promising. An appropriate solution is to soak then grind the beans into a nutritious paste which is then filtered to produce an evenly textured milk which remains slightly bitter but can be consumed directly. In many countries, this pure substance is heated then blended with vegetable oils, corn syrup, and other ingredients to simulate the flavour and texture of cows milk. Soymilk can be further processed into the soft curd, popularly known as tofu. This versatile substance is used in many Asian dishes where it’s uniform and delicate taste contrasts with the pungent flavours of fresh herbs like garlic, ginger, lemongrass, and spicy peppers. Soybeans are also used to manufacture fermented foods such as tempeh, miso, and tamari. The fermentation provides distinctive flavour and allows soy protein to be more easily digested.

Twenty years ago, soy products were subject to a range of negative associations and stereotypes. Initially described as bland and tasteless, they were not appreciated beyond a subculture of vegetarians, vegans, and alternative health seekers. For older generations, dietary inclusion of soy products was often initiated as a consequence of medical or health related factors. Patients with arteriosclerosis, heart disease, diabetes and other lifestyle related illnesses were frequently advised to replace cows milk with soymilk. Under these conditions, a defensive response was not unusual and many patients seem to have experienced negative reactions to the taste, texture, and smell of soymilk products.

In order to establish their products in a positive light, one prominent manufacturer of soymilk now engages athletes and sporting personalities to promote it as a wholesome food with significant health benefits. Popular acceptance of soymilk has paved the way for related products like tofu, miso, and tempeh. Today, it is easy enough to find terrific recipes for these in popular food magazines and their internet sites.       

Today, there are an incredible variety of organic cheese products available from almost every region of the world. Frequently named as one of the most basic and historically ancient foods, cheese continues to distinguish itself with the ongoing popularity of five traditional varieties. The big five include fetta, mozzarella, Parmesan, Swiss and cheddar. Visit your nearest continental delicatessen and ask the proprietor about cheese sales. Whether you live in New York, London, or Sydney, the big five will represent around seventy percent of total cheese sales. Each of the big five varieties is produced in extremely large volumes every year with vast differences in quality between the premium and average grades of cheese. There are of course many contemporary cheese makers who prefer to avoid high volume and mainstream production to pursue one or more of the artisanal varieties.

High quality raw materials

The overall quality and nutritional value of any cheese is undoubtedly determined by the quality of its raw ingredients. Primarily this involves milk, whether it is sourced from cows, goat, sheep, buffalo, yak, or reindeer. A second, most important ingredient is the culture or bacterial enzymes required to initiate the curd. Other ingredients used to flavour boutique and dessert cheeses can include herbs, fruit, nuts, and grains.

Nutritional analyses of milk from pasture fed cows have revealed significantly higher amounts of linoleic acid compared to the milk from grain fed animals. At certain times of the year, notably spring and autumn, pasture fed milk is likely to contain up to five times the linoleic acid content of milk produced through grain feeds. Linoleic acid has been linked to a reduced incidence of certain types of cancer.

There are also studies which reveal organic milk to have higher proportions of vitamin E, beta carotene, and Omega 3 fatty acids compared to conventional milk. Vitamin E and beta-carotene are important antioxidants while Omega 3 can assist in lowering blood cholesterol levels. In combination, these reports suggest that organic milk obtained from pasture fed animals provides superior nutritional qualities than alternative supplies. While many people have become accustomed to the watery taste of low fat milk, the creamier texture of milk obtained from healthy, pasture fed animals remains the best ingredient for making most varieties of cheese.

One hundred years ago, the majority of cheeses were handmade in small batches using fresh local ingredients. Depending on the variety and desired vintage, finished cheeses were coated in wax then left to mature slowly in underground cellars. Since that time, advancements in manufacturing technology have resulted in commercial operations which deliver large volumes of standardised product to supermarkets and convenience stores around the country. The cheeses are made in anonymous dairy processing factories with fresh and powdered milk, preservative, stabilisers, synthetic cultures, and a range of other additives including colouring agents, flavours, and thickeners. From uniform blocks, the cheese is then sliced, shredded, or even pressed into fancy shapes before shrink-wrapping in retail or commercial catering packets.

While most supermarkets appear to have a reasonably wide selection of cheeses, it is quite possible that eighty or ninety percent are manufactured by the same processor before being represented as a particular packaged brand. With few exceptions, these mass produced cheeses are somewhat bland and lifeless compared with traditionally made varieties. Considering the distinctive differences in ingredients and process, this is not particularly surprising.

Traditional cheese making

Traditional cheese makers begin with whole milk and rarely if ever use powdered or low fat substitutes. In many regions of Europe, it is standard practice to use raw, unpasteurised milk in cheese. True cheese contains a living bacterial culture and raw milk provides a superior environment for the controlled growth of selected strains. Some experts consider that the stronger cultures of unpasteurised whole milk ensure superior flavour and texture. Others prefer to compromise a little on taste to ensure the hygiene and safety advantages of pasteurised whole milk.

At present, the manufacture and sale of raw milk cheeses is prohibited in many states on account of health and agricultural quarantine regulations. Because it represents a traditional method of cheese making still practiced in many regions of the world today, the controversy surrounding the availability of raw milk cheeses is likely to continue. Consumers should be advised that it is certainly possible to obtain very high quality and flavoursome cheeses which are fashioned from pasteurised whole milk. Traditional cheeses may also depend upon the milk provided by other ruminant animals such as sheep, reindeer, buffalo, goats, and yak.

In Southern Tasmania, David Hagarty fashions a unique cheese he refers to as a “boccinoli”. Made from pasteurised goats milk, the cheese has a mild peppery taste and is perfect for use in slow baked dishes where it melts soft and elastic beneath a firm surface, similar to true mozzarella. Operating on an intimate scale, David supplies his boccinoli to several vineyards in the region. At present the cheese is only available between January and March although he anticipates extending his season over the next few years. “We’ve just bought another acre of land”, he explains. “When it’s properly fenced, we’ll buy a few more milking goats from an organic farm in Victoria”. So if you’re ever passing through the Huon Valley, ask a few of the locals about David and his boccinoli.

There’s little doubt that organic cheese production is worth pursuing, in spite of the high costs involved. Like wine, the individual qualities of cheese are largely determined by the foundations of climate and soil which uniquely characterise each area. This fact is apparently lost on the dairy conglomerates which purchase successful regional brands then rationalise them by importing cheaper milk from elsewhere.

In the interests of promoting their unique cheese varieties, local producers now frequently offer group tours and appreciation courses. When combined with a selection of red wines, there cannot be a more enjoyable approach to learning the complexities and subtleties of this fascinating food. Ordering mixed cheese platters instead of dessert is another convenient approach for those wishing to sample a variety of local and imported cheeses.

Anyone who visits a reputable organic dairy farm will begin to appreciate that the quality and taste of milk, cream, and other products is largely determined by the living conditions of the animals, particularly their access to healthy pasture. Cows have a complex digestive system which enables them to process and absorb nutrients from fibrous plant material like grass, dandelion, and clover. Milk obtained from grass fed cows is particularly rich in important vitamins and minerals.

Under normal dietary conditions, the fat content of cows milk is determined largely by the breed and the time of year. Jersey cows produce moderate quantities of milk with a high proportion of buttermilk compared to Fresian and Holstein cows, which provide large volumes of milk with relatively low buttermilk content. With pasture fed cows, the milk tends to be creamier and also contains a higher proportion of linoleic acid during the spring and autumn.

Linoleic is one of the essential fatty acids which assist cells to maintain their protective barrier and function normally. Research from Britain and Denmark has compared the nutrient compositions of organic and conventionally produced milk. Many of the recent studies have disputed claims that the nutrient composition of organic milk is essentially equivalent to conventional. For example, Danish scientists found organic milk to be significantly higher in vitamin E and beta carotene. Three independent research bodies in Britain confirmed the presence of higher levels of Omega 3 fatty acids in organic milk (Ellis et al, 2006).

Intensive dairy production

In many parts of the world, traditional methods of dairy production have been replaced by intensive systems which aim to increase the total volume of milk supplied. Among the more unpleasant examples of intensive farming is dairy production without access to pasture. Unfortunate cows are restricted to artificial feedlots, or cages. Their natural, herbivorous grazing is replaced by a controlled diet of high protein mixtures, euphemistically described as cattle cake. A protein rich diet accelerates the cow’s metabolism, enabling them to produce larger quantities of milk each day. Depending on supplies, cattle cake contains basic grains like wheat, barley, rice, and oats plus alfalfa, and soy meal.

During the nineties, controversy surrounded revelations that intensively reared beef and dairy cattle were given rendered feeds containing animal proteins like fish meal along with recycled beef and sheep carcasses. Many of the high volume dairy operators refuse to blame rendered protein feeds with sudden outbreaks of disease.

Growth hormones and antibiotics

There is also substantial industry support for the use of synthetic growth hormone, and antibiotic treatments. In states which authorise its use, dairy cattle may be given synthetic growth hormone as a means to increase normal milk production by approximately fifteen percent. The negative side effects on cattle include reproductive difficulties and an increased incidence of udder infection which usually requires antibiotic treatment. In terms of the qualitative effect on milk, growth hormones increase normal levels of growth factor. At present, there is ongoing debate about the potential for increased levels of growth factor to adversely influence human health.

In dairy cattle, antibiotics are primarily used to treat udder and hoof infections. On occasions, weanling calves will be administered sub therapeutic levels of an antibiotic to enhance their growth and development.

Unlike poultry and beef, milk products are routinely tested for antibiotic contamination and those with detectable levels are immediately removed from distribution. In reality, this is not enforced because of concerns for human health but rather because antibiotics prevent the manufacture of important food items such as yoghurt and cheeses, by destroying their bacterial cultures.

If traces of antibiotic are unlikely to be present in the milk supply, what are the consumer groups and medical scientists worried about? Their concern is that routine use of these medications in farmed animals is creating new strains of antibiotic resistant bacteria. Once established in significant colonies, resistant strains have the capacity to infect humans. The illnesses caused by infectious agents like salmonella and listeria are increasingly difficult to treat with conventional antibiotics. The lack of regular treatment options can have serious implications for infants, the elderly, and patients with compromised immune function.

At the present time, organically certified milk and cream products constitute only a small fraction of total milk sales by volume (Hill & Lynchehaun, 2002). Interestingly, a lot of the organic milk is currently being sold to upmarket coffee houses where it is used in latte, cappuccino, and other drinks.

Consumer preferences

Health conscious consumers generally prefer their milk to have low saturated fat content, less than two percent. There is also some evidence that consumers prefer the appearance and taste of homogenised milk.

During the homogenisation process, milk is forced through micro strainers under pressure. This causes solid fat particles to break apart resulting in an even dispersion throughout the liquid.  Organic producers often refuse to homogenise their milk, meaning that the fat will rise naturally to the top as cream. Don’t confuse homogenisation with pasteurisation, which involves heating the milk to inhibit the growth of bacteria. Organic dairy producers are obliged to pasteurise their milk in compliance with current health and safety standards.

Raw milk

Some health gurus and food writers like to preach the benefits of raw milk which is unpasteurised. Aside from being banned from sale in many states, you’d want to be certain that the cows were scrupulously healthy and the extraction and bottling procedures were conducted hygienically. It’s true that raw milk was widely consumed one hundred years ago but there was also a lower life expectancy and many deaths related to contaminated foods. If you insist on drinking raw milk, have a word with your doctor beforehand.
 

In terms of enduring popularity, many species of prawn, shrimp, lobster, crab, scallop, abalone, mussel, and oyster are highly rated. This is particularly apparent in regions of North Asia, where the ability to source exotic seafood is frequently seen as an important status symbol. In the wild, these creatures depend upon a clean environment with plentiful stocks of marine plankton, fish and other organisms. Many of the crustaceans are natural scavengers, living among floating sea grasses, rocky shelves and reefs. They provide an essential service by consuming marine detritus before it spoils and alters water quality. The bivalves, including clams, oysters, scallops, and mussels, obtain most of their nutrients through fluid filtration, leaving them particularly vulnerable to adverse changes in water quality. Many of these creatures are harvested from the wild by commercial and amateur fishers. There is also captive rearing which has been practiced for centuries in many regions of the world.

Prawn farming

Commercial prawn farming attracts levels of controversy similar to that of farmed salmon. While their food conversion efficiency is almost twice that of salmon, they are dependent on the same unsustainable supplies of fish meal and oils.

As an industry, some of the largest commercial prawn farming operations have been established in developing countries with extensive coastal access. In attempts to increase their efficiency and profits, prawn farmers have encroached upon important marine habitats such as the coastal wetland and mangrove forests of tropical Asia. These habitats which are also destroyed by other forms of land reclamation and development are among the most ecologically diverse on the planet. Within Asia alone, several million acres of pond have been developed for the farmed prawn industry. This enables several hundred thousand tons of prawns to be produced each year along with jobs and income for the respective regions.

The impact on coastal environments

From an environmental perspective, these short term economic advantages are often outweighed by their lack of sustainability and negative impact on other natural resources. The damage caused by poorly managed farms is often dramatic. When biological waste and other pollutants get drained from concrete ponds into coastal waterways, they influence water chemistry by increasing salinity and reducing the oxygen carrying capacity. At the same time, untreated prawn effluent encourages disease and bacterial organisms to multiply.

It is however unrealistic to avoid the fact that the prawn industry has enabled some previously isolated regions to develop an infrastructure of housing, roads, hospitals, and schools.

The most practical solution at this point appears to be a combination of industry restructuring and the implementation of tighter controls. From an environmental perspective, an efficient and effectively regulated farming sector is required since the demand for prawns cannot be attained by other sustainable means. Net trawling not only kills several endangered species of fish and turtle, it rakes sediment and can alter the normal growth of natural corals and kelp plantations.

Oyster and mussel farming

For centuries, oysters and mussels have been raised in captivity either as a food source or for the cultured pearl industry. Unlike farmed prawns, they gather their nutrients directly from seawater and have minimal impact on the surrounding environment.

In recent times, some of the food scares associated with edible farmed bivalves have resulted in stricter hygiene regulations and increased monitoring of water conditions.

On a regional basis, the farmed oyster industry has experienced difficult times. This has been attributed to climate change, decreased water purity, and the social and economic factors which influence such labour intensive operations.

The traditional model of building farms along the harbours and tidal rivers of populated areas is rapidly declining. Despite numerous restrictions which have resulted in cleaner waterways with improved safety, there are still too many risks for farms situated near population centres. This has resulted in a gradual shift toward species which can be accommodated in remote cooler regions with less exposure to industrial discharge, sewage, and other forms of pollution. They are reared in seawater enclosures and distributed directly to fresh produce markets and restaurants.

Organic certification and the future of farmed shellfish

Organic standards for farmed shellfish are slowly coming into effect, and there are predictions that bivalves such as oysters and mussels will be highly successful in terms of their sustainability, cost efficiency and popularity with consumers. Organically farmed prawns are currently available in Europe and the United States. There is increased investor interest in prawn farming precipitated by the development of cost effective organic feeds and a water sterilisation system based on ultra violet radiation.

Consumers are increasingly aware of the environmental damage and health risks associated with conventional farming practices. They are looking for healthy shellfish raised in controlled environments, unaltered by chemical toxins, genetic modification, or antibiotics.

Edible fish is a popular and important food resource in many regions of the world. A seventy percent majority of the overall supply is obtained from wild stocks frequenting oceans, coastal estuaries, and inland rivers.

Since the beginning of the industrial age, the natural habitats of wild fish stocks have suffered from various forms of pollution and ecological degradation. Recent surveys of wild fish populations have confirmed the negative impact of commercial fishing. Well publicised depletions include the orange roughy, bluefin tuna, swordfish, and toothfish. With the technologies currently available to large scale commercial fishing enterprises, it is not surprising that wild fish stocks are decreasing. Migratory ocean fish like tuna are routinely tracked with sophisticated satellite and sonar equipment. Factory fleets contain entire seagoing workforces trained to process vast quantities of frozen seafood for the supermarket chillers.

Quota restrictions are ineffective

Most attempts to regulate and control overfishing are based on establishing quota restrictions within national maritime boundaries (exclusive economic zones) and bans on fishing endangered species in international waters.

Regional quotas and other restrictions have altered the commercial fishing industry by favouring well-established organisations at the expense of small or seasonal operators. While economic rationalists might appreciate the inherent efficiency of eliminating weaker competitors, the impact upon most fish stocks has been largely negative. Consider the scenario of a bad fishing season with numerous small operators competing for limited supplies of fish. Under financial necessity, some of the operators may choose to reduce or suspend their fishing activities until stocks improve. The unfilled quota can be sold on to competitors but may not be an attractive proposition unless the competitors own quota can be easily filled. This situation often results in unfilled quota which will then assist the short term recovery of fish populations. When large and well-established operators dominate the fishing industry, there is an increased catch efficiency which tends to override the impact of declining fish populations. This creates fewer opportunities for unfilled quotas and short-term recovery.

At present, there is limited consensus regarding the methods which should be applied to determine effective quotas and restrictions on various endangered fish species. Sceptics of the current system claim that many of the statistical methods used to estimate population densities are flawed, resulting in substantial errors.

Even when there is widespread acknowledgement of serious species decline, there is always the opportunity for significant economic interests to prevail. This is clearly evident in the case of orange roughie which has recently been exposed to an Australian government approved quota in excess of five hundred tonnes each year. While this is modest in comparison to the unrestricted hauls of earlier decades, there is little doubt that current populations are less than ten percent of those existing prior to commercial exploitation in the seventies and eighties. Orange roughie is an extremely popular table fish which inhabits deeper waters and requires many decades to mature. Adult specimens engage in large spawning aggregations, leaving themselves exposed to easy capture. At the height of their seasonal exploitation in the early eighties, up to five tonnes were being removed every hour off the coast of New Zealand.

Illegal fishing

As many wild fish populations continue to decline, those remaining are increasingly vulnerable to the illegal fishing trade. The economic value of seafood has resulted in a sophisticated network of recalcitrants who risk serious penalties and widespread condemnation to generate illicit profits. Unlike the earlier stereotype of small and desperate outfits, most of the illegal operations are now efficient and well resourced. They are financed by international criminals, dubious corporations, and in some instances they operate under the tacit consent of sovereign states and territories.

Eco-labelling

In view of these problems, it is helpful when consumers of seafood can clearly identify those fish which are legally captured in healthy environments under ecologically sustainable guidelines. This approach has been taken in several countries which use eco friendly labelling schemes to encourage long term sustainability within the fishing industry. There are also encouraging efforts to apply similar labelling on an international basis. Ultimately, the success of these initiatives will depend upon developing new collaborative research networks and the uniform approach to practical issues like standardised naming of individual fish species.   

Until recently, ocean based aquaculture has focused on a limited range of fish species. Atlantic salmon remains the predominant species, with smaller stocks of ocean trout, sea bass, cod, and halibut.

The farmed salmon industry began in Scotland and Norway during the seventies and the technology was gradually distributed to other locations, including the southern hemisphere. Today, salmon are intensively farmed in the cool coastal regions of Iceland, North America, Ireland, Chile, Australia, and New Zealand.

When affected by deficient planning or management, seawater farms have the capacity to severely threaten coastal environments and disrupt their natural ecosystems. Choosing an appropriate site is probably the most critical consideration for effective waste management and pollution control. From the perspective of raising large fish with minimal losses, well-protected bodies of water were originally preferred. In many cases their lack of tidal movement caused steady accumulations of uneaten food and fish droppings. A release of nitrogen and other alterations in water chemistry resulted in algal blooms which suffocated and poisoned the fish and other living creatures by depriving them of oxygen. When affected regions were surveyed, their aquatic habitats were often found to be significantly altered. As a result of this, stocks of wild fish were depleted, with several important species failing to recover.

Burdening marine habitats

Like other primary sectors, the aquaculture industry is subject to numerous restrictions imposed to limit the risk of environmental damage and depletion of wild stock species. While several of these restrictions are clearly inadequate or poorly enforced, progress is limited by the small amounts of research undertaken each year. Even when there is conclusive evidence of problems, it may still require years before all of the concerns are addressed in the manner which enables a practical ban or restriction to be imposed. When uncertainties or differences of opinion occur, the process may drag on indefinitely. With the exception of some organic representatives, the conventional aquaculture industry has failed to address many of the concerns raised by scientists monitoring marine habitats and wild fish populations.

Ocean based aquaculture has the potential to influence the health and diversity of wild fish populations in several ways: As described above, the biological waste and pollutants can alter the habitats of wild fish species. There is the ongoing risk of disease and parasites transferring from farmed fish to wild fish stocks. This has already occurred with infectious anaemia and sea lice. Despite best efforts to contain them, farmed salmon do escape in significant numbers. It is assumed that some of these escapees will eventually breed with wild fish of the same or related species. Because farmed salmon are selectively bred for production purposes, their genes can potentially interfere with the process of natural selection occurring among wild stocks.

The real cost of processed pellet food

The Atlantic salmon is largely a carnivorous species, normally dependent on a diet of crustaceans and insects. During their accelerated growth cycles in captivity, they consume several times their adult weight in fish meal and oils which are usually processed as a pellet feed. The raw materials for this are removed in vast quantities from the North Atlantic and Southern Pacific oceans. An excess of five million tons of small pelagic fish are currently required to feed captive salmon stocks every year. The species involved include sardines, herring, anchovies, and mackerel. While still considered abundant, the slow decline for many of these populations is undoubtedly impacting on their natural predators in the ocean. These include many pelagic fish species, migratory birds including penguin, albatross, and the oceanic mammals like seal and dolphin.

It has been suggested that every kilogram of farmed salmon requires two and a half kilograms of fish to be taken from the ocean and processed into farmed stock feed. The apparent inefficiency of salmon farming suggests that ocean resources are being utilised in an unsustainable manner. While several attempts have been made to identify and utilise alternative feed sources, salmon farming remains largely dependent on fish meal.

The future may lie in developing farming technologies for other ocean species, particularly those which provide superior food conversion efficiency.

Despite its emergence as a newly developed primary sector, fish farming can trace its origins to regions of china where it was first practiced several thousand years ago. Edible carp, eel, and catfish, were cultivated in reservoirs linking the canal networks used for crop irrigation. These farms were low intensity by today’s standards and had the advantage of collaborative resource efficiency. Because they used natural materials and sought to maintain the biological integrity of their product the farms were, in effect, organic.

On account of global competition and economic rationalisation, most fish farms are now designed to deliver high yields. In order to meet their production targets, conventional aquaculture farms frequently engage in husbandry practices which are harmful to their stock and potentially unsafe for the consumer.

Controlling the lifecycle of farmed fish

In the wild, fish of the same species will grow and reach sexual maturity at different rates, depending on their local conditions. Water chemistry, temperature, food availability, and population size are some of the factors which contribute to this variable growth.

For commercial fish farmers, there is considerable incentive to control the growth and sexual development of stock. Upon reaching sexual maturity, fish lose weight and decrease their stores of fat. Because this reduces the value of their stock, many conventional producers seek to influence the course of nature. In addition to growth and sexual development, interventions are applied to restrict the physical damage caused by overcrowding, to prevent disease, and to effect alterations in the colour, texture, and flavour of their farmed seafood. In theory, the capacity to control these factors should help to facilitate the most efficient application of resources. With these efficiencies in place, the anticipated outcome is a standardised fish product which can be promoted to consumers as a dependable source of fresh protein.

The reality of conventional fish farming

When stressed by overcrowding, pollution, or changes in their regular environment, farmed salmon are susceptible to disease and parasitic organisms. Infestations of sea lice (lepeophtheirus salmonis) are very common. They interfere with feeding, lower immunity and eventually break down the mucus layer which provides external protection against bacterial infection. Without treatment, fish usually succumb to a slow and agonising death.

Most conventional fish farms treat serious infestations with organophosphate pesticide. Despite claims to the contrary, these chemicals contaminate a significant proportion of conventionally farmed seafood. They contribute to a combined toxic load which can include polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, and heavy metals like mercury. Sea lice are less problematic when fish populations are restricted to environmentally sustainable levels. Salmon raised on overcrowded farms may require antibiotics and other medications to control inflammatory tumours which debilitate and kill large numbers of fish every year. Seriously contagious diseases such as infectious anaemia have the potential to wipe out significant stocks of farmed fish. In the United Kingdom, outbreaks of this disease must be reported. Since no effective treatments are currently available, the usual obligation is to destroy the afflicted stocks.

Wild salmon eat a varied diet which is particularly rich in crustaceans. Their natural red colouring comes from the keratin protein of shrimp, crabs, and other shelled creatures. When farmed on a diet of processed fish meal, their flesh becomes pale pink or an unpalatable grey colour. Since consumers expect their salmon to be brightly coloured, most conventional farmers supplement their feed with artificial colouring agents like canthaxanthin and astaxanthin. Some organic farmers use a yeast compound to enhance the colour of their product while others achieve a brighter colour by including crustacean shells in their feed.

Genetic modification

In recent years, several fish species have been genetically modified in efforts to improve their cost efficiency and manageability as commercially farmed stock. The biotechnology scientists have experimented with gene manipulation to alter food conversion efficiency in farmed salmon and trout. They have attempted to increase the fish’s capacity to withstand extreme cold by inserting mammalian growth hormone genes into fertilised fish eggs to encourage accelerated growth and weight gain. These technologies are often widely condemned when applied to conventionally farmed land animals. In the case of fish, many consumers are confused or genuinely surprised to be informed of them. Unless there is an adequate evaluation of the health and environmental consequences of these technologies, consumers are advised to avoid them. The alternative is to obtain unaltered seafood captured from the wild, or to consider farmed products with an organic certification.

According to most accounts, the organic movement was established in response to problems associated with conventional crop agriculture. Shortly after the Second World War the industrialised manufacture and widespread use of agricultural fertilisers, pesticides, and other chemicals had permanently changed the way crops were grown, distributed, and sold to the consumer. In contrast to earlier times, most agriculture became highly specialised, capital intensive and the scale of commercial operations increased dramatically.

In response to these developments, ecologists and consumer groups were learning about the environmental impact and the consequences for human health. A drive for environmental awareness and sustainability during the sixties and seventies revealed many disturbing facts. Among these, it was widely reported that agricultural chemicals were being routinely detected in marine organisms.

For some reason, the problem of the oceans slipped easily from public consciousness. Perhaps this was due to their inaccessibility or the fact that relatively few individuals depended on the sea for the majority of their food resources. It is also true that commercial exploitation of the oceans lagged several decades behind that experienced on the land.

Prior to the seventies, most aquaculture was based on traditional practices and did not impact heavily upon the environment or human health. This changed rapidly with the emergence of new technologies and economic incentives which encouraged intensive farmed production of several fish and shellfish species.

Like the response to land based agriculture, the trend towards organic aquaculture is developing through the cooperation and shared interests of ethical producers and consumers. At the present time, a small quantity of farmed seafood is organically certified. Because the dependence on wild caught seafood is likely to continue, there may be some legitimacy in current arguments to include sustainable harvesting operations within the organic umbrella.

The way forward

Sustainable and organic practices are a relatively new development in ocean-based aquaculture. In order to achieve their provisional organic status, aquatic farms must establish a range of ecologically sound practices which include their commitment to stock welfare, habitat protection, prohibitions on chemical use, and consumer safety. A distinctive characteristic of most organic farms is their scale of operation. By raising smaller quantities of fish, the potential for disease and habitat degradation is significantly decreased. This assists organic sea farmers in maintaining high standards of product quality and also increases their ability to respond quickly to consumer demands and preferences.

At present, most of the organic standards established for aquaculture are preliminary and incomplete. This is well demonstrated by the absence of consensus regarding the sustainability of industry practices with regard to natural resources. The majority of conventional and organically certified salmon farms are dependent on the large-scale harvest of oceanic fish stocks each year. The harvested fish are processed into pellets which still provide the principle feed supply for captive salmon stocks.

Several organic certifiers have commissioned preliminary research to investigate alternative processed feeds as well as opportunities for raising live feed for captive salmon. In the absence of a fully developed standard, the organic certification authorities contribute various elements of their own philosophy. At times this has been frustrating for producers and consumers, but the popularity of organic produce continues to gain strength partly on account of its perceived integrity and dedication to such processes.

Location, reputation and stock management practices

With the interest of promoting themselves in a positive way, several of the larger organic seafood farms have used the internet and other resources to provide consumers with additional information about their organization’s philosophy and stock management procedures. While the information is informative, there appears to be an emphasis on focusing on certain aspects which can effectively differentiate their organic product from others. For example, there are organic fish farms now operating in Malaysia which outline the benefits of their fully enclosed and tightly controlled artificial environments. The farmers of organic salmon situated on the Orkney Islands of Northern Scotland promote the advantages of their own remote location and refer to the regions longstanding reputation for high quality standards and the purity of its natural produce. In Canada, one organic producer has highlighted the fact that their captive fish stocks are based on native species. They claim to have reduced the ecological risk of displacement which can occur whenever introduced fish escape and compete with native stocks for their habitats and food resources.

As the range of organically farmed seafood products continues to increase, the marketing aspect will intensify. This should enable consumers to identify the important product features which motivate their decision to choose organic. 

Pushing the boundaries

While representatives of the farmed seafood sector have slowly increased their status with various organic and food certification authorities, the companies and individuals involved in the harvest of wild stocks have been largely unsuccessful. The appeals for their legitimate inclusion within the organic umbrella have been rejected on several counts. At a fundamental level, the certification bodies have been established to regulate those items which are clearly produced or manufactured with human intervention. Wild seafood stocks captured from oceans, coastal estuaries, and rivers are not generally considered to fall within this category. Secondly, it is very difficult, if not impossible to control the living conditions of species in the wild. Due to repeated failures of legislation and management, most natural habitats are now affected by a range of industrial pollutants, agricultural chemicals, and the disease and ecological imbalances caused by introduced species.

In refusing organic status to wild caught fish, the certification authorities are less convincing when they refer to the depletion of wild stocks as a consequence of commercial fishing activities. When pressed, most of the certification authorities admit their interest in protecting the equity contained in their public identity and reputation among consumers. In effect, the certifiers are sustained by consumers who agree to pay a premium for their organic produce. At the present time there is insufficient motivation to extend the established boundaries which separate organic farmed fish and those harvested from the wild.

Despite their negative publicity over the years, edible oils play an important role in maintaining physical health and wellbeing. Compared to other nutrients, they are particularly high in energy and are routinely stored as a reserve supply. Every cell is surrounded by a lipid layer which helps to maintain the integrity of the intracellular environment. Oils play a key role in transporting fat-soluble nutrients like vitamin E, D, and they are key constituents of the steroidal compounds which regulate metabolism, development and integration of the body’s vital functions.

It wasn’t long ago that health advocates were recommending polyunsaturated vegetable oils like safflower, sunflower, and soybean as the best choices for a healthy diet. The current position is that too many of these can result in oxidation and free radical damage within the body. Monounsaturated vegetable oils and certain types of fish oil are more nutritious and provide higher levels of protection.

Why it’s important to use organic oils

Is it worthwhile seeking organically certified oils for kitchen purposes? The answer is yes, unreservedly, for a number of reasons. When living organisms are exposed to chemical pollutants, they process and eliminate these according to metabolic capacity while the remainder is temporarily stored in fatty tissue. Over time, the fat-soluble metabolites of pesticides, herbicides, and other agricultural agents are subject to accumulation within plant oils.

Choosing organically certified oils is the best way to ensure purity, since the oil yielding plants will have been minimally exposed to these chemicals. Unless there is a clear label to indicate otherwise, cooking oils extracted from intensively produced crops like canola, corn, and soybeans are likely to include material sourced from genetically modified stock. Organic certification provides an accurate assurance that these products contain only natural, unadulterated ingredients. Under organic conditions, well-nurtured soils provide balanced nutrients which support the healthy plant growth required for premium quality oil yields.

With a focus on high volume production, commercial oil crops can rapidly deplete soils by absorbing important trace minerals and organic components. When these are replaced with synthetic fertilisers, the vitality of forthcoming crops will be lowered along with the quality of their oils.

Extraction methodologies

Like most natural foods, vegetable oils must be handled with care to ensure the preservation of their beneficial properties. From a consumer’s perspective, the first aspect to consider is their method of extraction. Hydraulic pressing involves squeezing the oil-bearing produce between heavy metal plates. Traditionally, these were fashioned from combinations of timber and iron, not dissimilar to an antique wine press. Today, modern equipment is highly mechanised and efficient; although the hydraulic method is usually reserved for oil rich produce like olives and tree nuts. Unlike other methods, hydraulic pressing does not require the produce to be heated or treated with chemical solvents. Cold pressing protects the nutrients and prevents the oil from altering its physical composition and becoming unstable.

Another widely used extraction process is known as expeller. This involves a large auger rotating inside a cylindrical metal filter. When the blades of the auger contact the fruit or seeds, the oils are pressed through the pores of the filter while the solid pulp remains inside the cylinder. Expeller processing can be complicated and expensive in terms of the capital investment and periodic maintenance required. Despite claims to the contrary, expeller processing does not ensure a cold pressing. Unless the cylinders are refrigerated, there is potential for mechanical friction to generate levels of heat which will compromise the oil.

High volume oil processing and the use of hexane

Many of the high volume oil crops are now processed with the assistance of extreme heat and industrial solvents like hexane. Pause on that for a moment. Hexane is a highly toxic petroleum derivative.  According to manufacturing technologists, the solvents are evaporated throughout the process and leave no detectable residue within the extracted oils. Despite this assurance, the levels of heat applied must certainly destroy nutrients and lower the stability of the oil.

The best advice is to avoid the cheaper, mass produced vegetable oils. Concentrate as much as possible on the better quality products which should be organically certified and mechanically pressed.

Preserving and heating oils

Providing they are stored in darkened glass containers and kept away from light and heat, most vegetable oils will maintain their integrity for at least several months. In order to achieve consistent results, it is important to understand the basic heating properties of the different types of oil available. This enables an appropriate product to be selected for individual cooking applications.

The no heat oils have very low smoking points and should be used for cold dressings, sauces, and soups. Heating decreases their flavour, and can degrade their beneficial monounsaturated molecules into unhealthy saturated fats. Examples of no heat oils are flaxseed, wheat germ, and evening primrose. While some health conscious individuals may prefer to consume the majority of their oils with minimal or no heat applied, there are numerous exciting dishes which require flavoursome oils to be rapidly heated yet maintained below their smoking point.

Oils which can be used for medium or low heat applications include olive, grapeseed, walnut, and canola oils. Those known to maintain flavour and integrity with vigorous, high temperature applications include sesame, macadamia, almond, apricot kernel, and avocado. 

Nutritional content of oils

In terms of cardiovascular health, medical researchers have focused on the ratio of key essential fatty acids within each type of oil. Many of the monounsaturated vegetable oils are significantly higher in Omega 6 compared to Omega 3 fatty acids. In situations where the dietary intake of Omega 6 becomes too dominant, there is less opportunity for the equally important Omega 3 components to be effective. This can be corrected with dietary supplementation of fish oil capsules which are concentrated sources of Omega 3 fatty acids. Alternatively, some individuals may prefer to focus on eating the monounsaturated vegetable oils which contain a good balance of fatty acids. The best examples are the cold pressed flaxseed and walnut oils.

In terms of overall health benefits combined with practicality, there is no serious rival to a premium quality olive oil. A freshly pressed olive oil contains more antioxidant and polyphenol compounds than other monounsaturated vegetable oils. Freshness and quality can be identified by the level of acidity present in cold pressed oil. Virgin oil may contain up to three percent acidity while extra virgin must contain less than one percent acidity.

The major health benefits of premium grade olive oils appear to include enhanced immune function, supple skin, regulated appetite, and protection against certain types of bowel cancer. Therapeutic benefits aside, olive oil has richly satisfying flavours which can be described in terms of fruit, pepper, spice, and mildly bitter characteristics. There are several varieties of olive which interact with their local growing climates to provide a distinctive foundation for Mediterranean and Nouveau cuisine.

According to market researchers, there are six underlying factors which influence consumers deciding between organically certified and conventional dairy produce. By a considerable degree, the most important of these is a concern for product safety. This is demonstrated by our instinctive desire to be reassured that exacting standards have been met to minimise the risk of modern food contaminants, particularly those suspected of creating preventable health problems. Fair enough. We live in a technologically complex age with many benefits and advantages. All the same, there are lots of people who feel uncomfortable with agricultural chemicals and genetically altered proteins in the food chain.

Optimal nutrition

Closely related to the concern for safety is our desire to locate food items which provide important nutrients for health and vitality. It is a fact that many food resources are now terribly degraded by processing and the inclusion of food additives. The goal of conventional food production is often to deliver high volumes of standardised and cost efficient products. Medical authorities are beginning to warn parents about an increased prevalence of affluent malnourishment which is caused by an abundance of low nutrient, calorie dense snacks, and the relative scarcity of wholesome, natural foods in the diet.

Some of the dairy products marketed to children may well contribute to the problem. Consider the popular range of flavoured milk, smoothies, and the nondescript dairy foods which stack alongside custard puddings and flavoured yoghurt. Instead of fresh ingredients, these products are likely to contain processed milk which was cooked at high temperatures to kill bacteria along with many of the natural vitamins. They are thickened with gelatine, sweetened, flavoured and packaged in cheerfully attractive colours. Some are fortified with additional nutrients.

Once familiar with these products, children may find it difficult to appreciate a plain glass of fresh milk, or organic yoghurt sweetened with bush honey. While organic certification provides no additional assurance of an items nutritional status, consumers report that it does encourage the selection of healthier items and eliminates many poor choices.

Animal welfare

The next factor considered by consumers is the welfare and rights of the animals which are farmed to provide dairy products. Organic dairy farmers are guided by standards which control important aspects of animal husbandry and management. They include references to feed, accommodation, veterinary treatment, routine inspections, and the safe introduction of new animals to the herd.

Compared with the intensively scaled operations of many conventional dairy operators, organically raised cows are usually maintained in small herds. This reduces the risk of disease and enables pastures to be selectively rotated. Since organic standards prevent the use of growth hormones, young animals mature slowly, building their natural resistance against parasites and disease.

Sustainable practices

Consumers choose organic dairy products because they want to support a sustainable agriculture which helps protect the environment for their children and grandchildren. Conventional dairy farmers depend on significant volumes of inexpensive and readily available stock feeds like corn, barley, and soy meal. The feed grains are commercially grown on an enormous scale with the assistance of synthetic fertilisers, selective herbicides, and pesticides. Their continued production and use contributes to soil erosion, groundwater contamination, and the reduction of biodiversity whenever they replace mixed cropping.

Since certified stock feed can be prohibitively expensive and difficult to source, most organic dairies concentrate on developing their own feed supplies, primarily a range of summer and winter pasture. They are raised with natural soil additives which can even be recycled from cow manure. All of these practices conserve energy which might otherwise be required to transport agricultural resources over distance.

Reputation

While the widespread demand for organic produce is a recent trend, reputable organic brands have been around for several decades. In the same way that brand loyalty is developed for conventional food items, many consumers favour the organic products offered by certain companies in preference to others. In terms of organic dairy produce, most consumers are looking to support local companies supplying a range of standard and specialty items. Trust is rapidly developed when organic dairy producers are open and honest about their practices and can demonstrate a genuine commitment to the industry. Even the smallest operators can build a foundation for brand loyalty. In southern Tasmania, David Hagarty produces approximately two hundred litres of premium quality goats’ milk each week. His attitude is simple. “I love when people visit and ask questions”, he says. “When we started out, that’s how it was. I’d contact some organic people and make appointments to visit their farms”.

Affordability

The sixth factor to influence consumer decisions regarding organic products is their cost relative to conventional items. This is certainly relevant for dairy produce since many organic items will be twice or several times the price of conventional brands. So how does a family on a tight budget afford to continue eating organic dairy produce? Unfortunately, in some cases this won’t be feasible.

Organic dairy operations are labour intensive and usually generate less output than conventional ones. To remain commercially viable, organic producers must include their additional costs in the final price of their products. The cost of many organic products is also influenced by their limited availability. When a scarce product is widely sought after, retailers have an opportunity to add an additional premium.

Many people find this frustrating, particularly the organic producers who find themselves catering to an elite group of wealthy consumers. Some time in the future, the hidden costs of conventional agriculture may be revealed through an environment tax. In the meantime, informed consumers will purchase organic products when they can afford to and support those reforms which open the industry to a wider group of consumers.

How easy is it for tea producers to deliver a high quality organic product to the consumer? As the fourth generation representative of Darjeeling’s tea dynasty, Rajah Banerjee is the prince of organic tea. Cradled in the lap of the Himalayas, Makaibari is the oldest single owner tea estate and one of the few devoted to organic and biodynamic agricultural methods. Rajah explains that the annual volume of organically grown tea is only six percent that of conventional. While demand for organically grown tea continues to increase, there are significant constraints upon growers who might like to enter this market.

Large producers in particular face significant challenges in adapting to a new set of agricultural parameters. The switch to holistic management requires considerable planning and time. By avoiding chemical fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides, organic growers must directly confront the challenge of developing approved alternatives. These include natural soil conditioners like manure, botanical insect repellents, alternate host species, and manual weeding. Understandably, many large producers are discouraged by the loss of income which is likely to occur during their transition to holistic agriculture.

At the opposite end of the spectrum, small scale organic tea producers seem to have an increasingly difficult time. This is largely on account of the manner in which tea is commercially distributed. In Rajah’s words, volume is the mantra. Specialty teas are often ignored by major distributors who demand standardised products which facilitate swift turnover and high volume sales.

About tea

The tea bush (Camellia sinesis) has been cultivated for thousands of years, originally in China where it became a staple beverage. Due to its popularity as a trading commodity, the cultural influence of tea spread outwards to encompass those regions presently known as Japan, Indonesia, Afghanistan, Turkey, and Russia. At the arrival of the eighteenth century, tea became an important beverage in England where it was consumed across all levels of society.

Chinese herbalists have long appreciated the health benefits of drinking tea, although much of this knowledge was inaccessible in the west. Today, there is a decent amount of mainstream research seeking to evaluate the beneficial properties of tea. Two of the questions most frequently raised in these studies include: Which variety of tea is most beneficial to human health? and Is organically grown tea superior to conventionally grown tea?

Black tea

Several varieties of tea are obtained from the Camellia sinesis bush. The most popular tea around the world is currently black tea. The flavoursome qualities of black tea are captured by a fermentation process which involves an initial steaming to release enzymes followed by high temperature drying. While fermentation enriches the taste, it also decreases some valuable polyphenols while increasing the caffeine and tannin content of the leaves.

A good quality black tea (preferably single leaf) is still considered a useful source of flavonoids and other antioxidant compounds. A regular dietary intake of these nutrients is required for building resistance against infection and many of the diseases which occur in later life.

There is considerable interest and support for research investigating the influence of tea consumption upon degenerative illnesses like arthritis, cancer, and coronary vascular disease. Black tea appears to provide some protection against coronary vascular disease. In a sample of elderly males in Holland, moderate tea consumption was associated with a lower incidence of mortality attributed to heart disease (Hertog, et al, 1993). Some of the lower priced black teas; particularly those used in teabags will be blended with Camellia assam leaves. To date, most of the scientific studies have focused on Camellia sinesis.

Green Tea

Green tea is traditionally preferred in several regions of Asia, notably Japan, where its complex health benefits have been extensively researched. Instead of being fermented, green tea is dried quickly to reduce oxidation. This results in a slightly astringent beverage. When brewed from high quality leaves, a serving of green tea ensures a bountiful harvest of highly desirable nutrients. These include antioxidant vitamins, beta carotene, zinc, and selenium, in addition to complex polyphenols and flavonoids.

From a holistic health perspective, green teas are classified along with other foods which regulate metabolism and alkalinise the body. Promoting an alkaline environment assists the efficiency of cellular metabolism and may decrease the likelihood of certain types of cancer. Scientists have now identified several polyphenol compounds which appear to have inhibitory effects upon the development and progression of cancerous cells.

For laboratory mice, a diet supplemented with green tea polyphenols resulted in a significantly lower incidence of skin cancer (Dreosti et al, 1997). The consumption of green tea was associated with decreased recurrences of breast cancer in Japanese women (Nakachi et al, 1998). Other potential health benefits of green tea include protection against cardiovascular disease, arthritis, and elevated blood pressure (Sueoka, et al, 2001).

Tea plantations

With approximately twenty thousand plants supported on each hectare of land, commercial tea production places high demands upon natural and human resources. The average annual yield is approximately two thousand kilograms of dried tea per hectare.

Like other intensively farmed crops, tea is routinely treated with a broad range of agricultural chemicals. Because their new growth is continually harvested, tea plants must obtain sufficient nitrogen from the soil. Most commercial growers depend on synthetic fertiliser to replace soil nitrogen. Organic farmers replace soil nitrogen with natural materials like green manure crops, seaweed, compost, and animal manures.

Not surprisingly, commercially cultivated tea is susceptible to damage caused by fungal infection, and several species of insect. Once again, the majority of tea plantations depend on chemical treatments which must be frequently applied, often in higher concentrations than those recommended. This impacts negatively upon the quality of life enjoyed by plantation workers and results in a product that is potentially dangerous to consumers.

Conventional tea producers operate within narrow margins and cannot routinely accommodate the shift to an organic approach since, in most cases, their yields would be significantly decreased. It has also been reported that workers employed to maintain and harvest tea bushes prefer conventional spraying, since this eliminates the natural prey of scorpions, spiders, and snakes. The chance of being bitten or killed by one of these creatures is apparently much greater on organic plantations. Conventional growers frequently promote these statistics to gain approval for their practices. Since many of these workers are children, it seems cynical to address short term safety without considering the longer term implications of repeated chemical exposure.

Health and wellbeing

For ensuring the health and wellbeing of those who consume dried tea, there is little doubt that organically certified products contain less chemical residue than conventionally grown alternatives. One of the difficulties with assessing pesticide levels in tea is the fact that each season will precipitate different approaches to crop management, depending on variable factors like climate, insect breeding cycles, and the market price for individual tea varieties. The majority of tea is sold in blended form, meaning that elevated pesticide levels can rarely be traced to a single source. As a consequence, many scientists and consumers are somewhat sceptical of the publicised laboratory analyses.

In addition to accumulating within the cells of each plant, agricultural chemicals have the potential to inhibit or weaken natural processes which create highly potent nutrients. The complex polyphonous and flavonoids within tea leaves are involved in complex functions like protection against predatory insect attack. When plants are artificially protected by synthetic chemicals, they gradually lose their natural ability to discourage insects. This is less of a problem with most species of culinary herb, which can be dried and blended to create healthy or medicinal beverages. When grown in appropriate locations, herbs are naturally resilient. Many of them grow in marginal soils and produce volatile compounds which discourage insect pests. This enables them to be grown organically, without chemicals.

Health conscious consumers have every reason to choose an organically certified product. Oakland based Numi Tea have developed a unique range of teas which meet strict organic standards. Company spokesperson Anna Hartman explains that most tea leaves are unwashed when they’re dried and processed. So the first time you steep your tea, you’re also infusing chemical residue from any pesticides previously used on the plants. Dedicated to quality, Numi Tea avoids the use of fragrant oils which can disrupt the subtle flavours of a genuine tea. Since their introductory launch of Dry Desert Lime, the company has proceeded to introduce many distinctive and exotic teas. These include Rooibos (red tea), Lemon Myrtle, Honeybush, and Berry Black.

Sourcing organic teas

Many informed consumers are attracted to the health giving properties of organically certified tea. Lisa Hilbert’s a Melbourne based naturopath specialising in Herbal Medicine. She’s also the founder and CEO of Tea Tonic, a company dedicated to developing teas with therapeutic properties. From her experience, Lisa knows that an appropriately selected tea will enhance and strengthen specific aspects of bodily function. For example, Tea Tonic’s Warm Spicey blend includes therapeutic herbs such as Clove, Anise, and Cinnamon. When taken regularly, this can assist general circulation and digestion.

In situations where it is difficult to obtain organically certified varieties of black or green tea, consumers may prefer to concentrate on herbal teas like peppermint, rosebud, or chrysanthemum. There are numerous varieties to choose from and regular consumption can provide nutritional benefits of similar magnitude to black or green tea.

One of the factors affecting local supplies of organically certified tea is its recent incorporation within a range of natural health products. Widespread awareness of beneficial compounds in green tea has encouraged enterprising manufacturers to develop its functional properties as the key ingredient within sports drinks, toothpaste, and premium cosmetic products. Health food manufacturers are increasingly interested in the antioxidant properties which preserve nutrients and discourage rancidity of natural oils. There is little doubt; the future of organic tea appears very promising.

Why have so many chocolate lovers shifted their allegiance to organically certified products? We contacted industry representatives across the globe for their responses. Sjaaks is a family business located in Northern California specialising in the manufacture of premium quality organic chocolates. Jessica Holten is the daughter of Sjaaks founder, Jacques Holten. Having grown up with chocolate, Jessica probably has a better understanding than most. She believes many consumers have become increasingly wary of the high levels of pesticides applied to raise conventional cocoa crops. The chocolate products may then contain residual chemicals present within the cocoa butter as derived from the oily components of the bean. Jessica also agrees with our perception that dark organic chocolate is gaining in popularity. Most milk chocolates lack the depth of flavour and she points to tastes becoming increasingly refined as consumers explore the subtleties of dark chocolate. In addition, the high antioxidant levels and well reported health benefits have encouraged many individuals to switch to dark chocolate products.

From Australia, Christine Giarrusso agrees with Jessica’s take on the pesticide concerns. Definitely Chocolate offers a premium organic chocolate which is free of chemical pesticides and genetically modified ingredients. Christine also believes that dark chocolate is gaining in popularity, but not necessarily at the expense of milk or compound chocolate products. She says that many of their customers already enjoy the complex tastes of dark chocolate and that recent media coverage on its health benefits may therefore be perceived as an additional bonus.

As representative of the German chocolate company Vivani, Monika Noack reminds us that it is attention to detail which distinguishes fine organic chocolates from the rest. She points to the choice of raw organic sugars as opposed to refined and the extended conching process which enables their chocolates to be manufactured without emulsifying additives. The German chocolate manufacturers are also dedicated to sourcing their ingredients from plantations supporting the healthy diversity of species required for sustainably managed crops.

It’s all about cocoa

Until recently, it was widely assumed that chocolate provided minimal nutritional or health benefits. Well a comforting truth has been revealed. Repeated studies are now indicating that small quantities of dark chocolate may initiate some very positive health effects. The natural flavonoids present in cocoa and dark chocolate possess strong antioxidant properties which can reduce cumulative damage to blood vessels, decreasing the risk of cardiovascular disease, heart attack, and stroke. Another compound in dark chocolate is believed to relax the arterial blood vessels while inhibiting the aggregation of platelets and other cells which may otherwise create temporary blockage of the arteries.

Cocoa is native to South America where it was harvested for thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans. In its natural state, the cocoa tree (Theobroma cacao) inhabits lowland rainforest and lives beneath the canopy of taller species. The expansive biodiversity of their habitat plays an important role in the life cycle of the cacao species. For example, pollination is facilitated by numerous insects which live within the humid canopy of the rainforest. There is also an integral balance between beneficial insect predators and those which attack the foliage and roots of the cocoa tree.

Most of the world’s cocoa is currently sourced from West African plantations. When intensively raised in monocultural environments, the trees are very susceptible to a variety of fungal infections and pathogenic organisms. This can result in higher than average levels of chemical use. In poorer countries, it is not unknown for these to include stockpiles of agricultural products which are currently banned in more affluent countries for health and safety reasons.

Organic cocoa

Organically certified cocoa is grown without pesticides and other chemical treatments. One of the sustainable approaches employed by organic cocoa producers is to plant trees at lower densities beneath a canopy of shade providing species. This simulation of natural growing conditions improves local biodiversity and decreases the incidence of disease. Over the years, Manuel Costello has imported large quantities of cocoa from countries like Grenada, Brazil, and The Ivory Coast. “We used to secure the supplies with agents”, he says. “Now it’s better if we deal directly with our growers. Experienced clients always demand quality. The highest quality cocoa expresses deeply complex flavours, which distinguish the finest chocolates and drinking blends. The organic product is more expensive than standard grown beans, but successful clients accept that. They don’t question the market. That’s good business sense”.

Processing cocoa

After harvesting the beans, several additional processes are required to create the cocoa butters which can be used to manufacture the different grades of chocolate and drinking cocoa.

In their raw state, cocoa beans are fairly dry and bitter. To release additional flavours, the beans must be shelled then roasted. After roasting, they are ground into a creamy pulp which is fermented to reduce bitterness and increase the chocolate flavours. Fermentation is encouraged by repeatedly agitating the pulp over several hours. Extended agitation periods (up to several days) are applied to produce the smoother blends of Swiss and Belgian chocolate. The cocoa butter is usually treated with several alkalinising substances to remove impurities. At this stage it can be sieved to separate some of the solids which are dried to create a cocoa powder. The remaining cocoa butter can be blended with sugar, milk solids, additional oils, and emulsifier to create chocolate.

There are many recipes and techniques which are used for manufacturing chocolate. The quality of the finished product will depend entirely upon the integrity of the raw ingredients and the manufacturing processes involved. Organically certified dark chocolates generally contain at least thirty percent cocoa butter. This ensures the flavour complexity often described as bittersweet. Milk chocolate is typically smoother and sweeter with around twenty percent cocoa butter.

Functional properties

One of the recent trends observed in chocolate and confectionery manufacturing is the move towards creating products with functional health benefits. This is closely linked to research which has identified the therapeutic effects of the flavonol compounds within dark chocolate.

There is a move to increase the quantity of beneficial flavonols while controlling levels of saturated fat and sweeteners. This necessitates that cocoa beans should be carefully handled and processed to ensure preservation of their natural properties. Over the next few years consumers should be able to purchase heart smart chocolate made with pure, organically certified ingredients.

Have you ever experienced difficulty obtaining organically certified hen’s eggs? From the farmer’s perspective, Jesse Laflamme concedes that filling demand throughout the year can be challenging. Based in New Hampshire, he works alongside his father Gerry to produce Pete and Gerry’s Organic Eggs. Jesse points out that each egg brought to market must be planned for at least eight months in advance. With the high cost of organic grain to factor, there’s little margin for error. He knows of organic egg farmers who miscalculated their growth potential and ended up with surplus eggs which could not be sold to recoup costs. While subject to a cyclical demand, organic egg farms like Pete and Gerry’s continue to provide consumers with premium product choices and a clear alternative to the questionable practices of conventional egg producers.

During the eighties, an emphasis on reducing daily cholesterol intake caused egg consumption to decrease in most urban regions. The relationship between dietary cholesterol and blood cholesterol has now been re-evaluated with the conclusion that genetic and lifestyle factors assume a greater influence along with the intake of saturated fats. As a consequence more nutritionists are recommending eggs as an important source of protein, vitamins, and minerals.

Since the negative eighties, there have been many studies focusing on the positive health benefits of moderate egg consumption. These include the provision of nutrients like choline and biotin which support nervous system functioning and may be protective against Alzheimer’s disease and age related cognitive decline.

Overwhelmed with choice

Before purchasing a carton of commercially produced hen eggs, the modern consumer must negotiate a confusing array of descriptions and labels, many of them designed to conceal the true nature of their production. There are barn eggs, cage eggs, free-range eggs, Omega 3 eggs, vegetarian eggs, and organically certified eggs. Most of them are available in a range of sizes such as medium, large, extra large and jumbo eggs.

Descriptions like omega 3 and vegetarian are used to emphasise some aspect of the hen’s diet. In the case of omega 3 the diet is usually supplemented with flaxseed meal or oil while vegetarian eggs suggest that no rendered or animal proteins are included. Dietary descriptions like these do not provide the consumer with additional information regarding the type of housing, and in some cases the hens will be caged. Barn laid is a confusing description which suggests the hens are uncaged. In all likelihood, the birds will be cramped inside sheds with no access to outdoor runs. Free-range eggs are laid by hens with the freedom to forage outdoors. While the ability to forage outdoors is highly desirable, these hens are usually provided with a supplementary diet of non-organic chicken pellets. This exposes them to a potential range of pesticide and agricultural chemical contaminants.

Certified organic eggs

Organic standards for egg production specify the types of feed, accommodation, and living conditions which are suitable for laying hens. While healthy hens require shelter for security and protection against the elements, they also benefit from the freedom to scratch and forage naturally outdoors. A clean, pollution free range provides a suitably varied natural diet, one that is rich in essential vitamins, minerals, and trace elements.

To prevent the accumulation of pesticide and other agricultural chemicals, any supplementary feeds must be obtained from organically certified growers. Flock sizes are usually contained to one thousand birds or fewer, although the notion of this arbitrary limit has stirred controversy between various competing certification authorities.

In order to pass their inspections, organic egg producers must demonstrate commitment to the welfare and wellbeing of their hens. This includes the provision for humane culling of birds affected by parasites, skin and moulting disorders, or beak problems which disrupt normal feeding.

The consequence of a superior diet and lifestyle for these hens is most evident in the texture, taste, and colour of the eggs. To start with, the shell should be consistently thick, smooth, and bright in appearance. Once opened, the raw yolks glisten with a rich, warm colour, while the whites appear firm and clear. Eggs of this quality are welcome in most kitchens, they effectively bind raw ingredients and provide the superior body and support essential for traditionally baked soufflé, omelette, cakes, muffins, and meringue.

Battery hen eggs

In stark contrast to hens raised according to organic standards, battery hens are imprisoned in cramped wire cages stacked row upon row inside overheated hangars. These hangars routinely accommodate several thousand birds at any given time. Stressed and crowded birds peck at each other. To limit the capacity for hens to attach each other, hot wire guillotines are used to remove a third of each hen’s beak. During this “de-beaking” process, a number of hens die of shock.

The productivity of battery hens is regulated by a regime of twenty four hour lighting and carefully measured quantities of protein rich feed, which is sometimes supplemented with antibiotics, colouring agents, and synthetic hormones. The existence of these birds can only be imagined as an extreme vision of cruelty and suffering.

A direct consequence of maintaining large numbers of birds in such unnatural conditions is the increased levels of stress, illness, and disease. Salmonella is a dangerous pathogen, one which is frequently responsible for outbreaks of food poisoning. It was originally a concern restricted to chicken meats, but now includes caged eggs. In the worst-case scenario, salmonella pathogens have a capacity to infect the ovaries of laying hens. In response to numerous incidents of food poisoning, the handling regulations for eggs have been improved to include mandatory items such as refrigerated transportation. While this has reduced some of the risk, it misses the original source of the problem.

At present, some egg producers are able to continue their operations despite evidence of salmonella infection within their flocks. Instead of supplying their fresh eggs to discount supermarkets and chain stores, there are opportunities to enter the growing market for low-grade bulk eggs. These are processed within industrial size vats which shell, filter, and pasteurise as many as fifty thousand eggs each hour. Packaged into standard volumes, the treated eggs are widely used in catering kitchens and for industrial manufacturing of cakes, biscuits, frozen foods, mayonnaise, and protein supplements.

Sourcing quality eggs

Organically certified eggs can be ordered through most whole food suppliers, fresh food distributors, and health food stores. They are often stacked alongside the cage eggs in supermarkets and convenience stores. This is a practice which should be discouraged since there is always the potential for these products to become mixed together.

Consumers should remember that eggshells are porous and will not necessarily protect eggs from harmful bacteria.

Farmers markets have become very popular and there are usually plenty of good quality eggs available. Not all of them will be organically certified, but it is usually possible to get some idea about their quality by speaking with vendors. Fresh eggs purchased from markets are likely to be randomly sized and speckled with dirt and manure, which is often a shock to those familiar with commercially produced eggs since these are generally washed and graded prior to packing.

Many of us find it difficult to contemplate functioning without our morning coffee. Let’s face it, caffeine stimulates the brain and provides the energy boost we need. Depending on circumstances and routine, that first cup is probably followed by several others, distributed strategically throughout the day. In Continental Europe, freshly brewed coffee has been iconically popular since the beginning of the twentieth century. Try to imagine Paris without its coffee. It’s almost unthinkable!

Shortly after the Second World War, the art of coffee making declined in many countries beyond the immediate influence of Continental Europe. This was primarily associated with the advent of instant blends which were economical and convenient.

In a return to tradition, dedicated coffee drinkers have largely discarded freeze-dried and instant blends, and once again demonstrate a significant preference for freshly brewed and carefully selected beans. Commencing with the distribution of new varieties in the late eighties, brewed coffee experienced a prolonged wave of consumer popularity which strengthened during the nineties, and continues to this day. Part of the trend is attributed to the arrival of coffee house chains which rely on clever marketing and brand promotion. Beneath the facade of sophisticated imagery there are some fundamental issues which should be relevant to ethical and health conscious consumers.

Coffee is indigenous to the mountainous regions of Central Africa where it grows interspersed among a variety of other plant species beneath the rainforest canopy. Today coffee is commercially grown in the plantations of Africa, Indonesia, Vietnam, South and Central America. Influenced by the economic and social conditions of each region, coffee plantations operate according to either the traditional and sustainable approach or an intensive agricultural model which aims for a higher output with less sustainability.

Within the traditional and sustainable approach, there is an option for some producers to grow their beans organically, under certification. Like other examples of organic farming, this involves a code of practices designed to eliminate harmful chemicals, the inefficient use of resources, and environmental degradation. In some cases there are additional conditions which aim to protect growers and their families from exploitation. To qualify as a certified organic product, the raw beans must be extracted, processed, and roasted without chemical additives.

Intensive coffee production

The intensive model of production frequently depends on clearing natural forests to establish a uniform monoculture of coffee trees. With no canopy or competing species, trees mature early and can be tightly packed in orderly rows. The soil is treated with herbicide to destroy weeds, synthetic fertiliser to accelerate growth, and other chemicals to deter insect pests and prevent disease. Conventionally grown coffee is a highly toxic crop, with subsistence farmers frequently forced to employ outdated agricultural chemicals, banned elsewhere for safety reasons. In the past, unscrupulous importers have tried to excuse this with suggestions that pesticide residue is removed once the beans are roasted. Even if this were true, issues of toxicity must be considered in broader terms than their effects upon the consumer. Many of these practices have irreversible impacts on natural rainforest ecosystems.

Clear felling of rainforest for plantation removes soil nutrients and biodiversity. Because tropical environments encourage rapid recycling of soil nutrients, a high percentage of agricultural chemicals will always be stored within the plants and animals of the forest. Beneath surface layers of humus, many tropical soils are relatively deficient in their nutrient profile. Once the forest is cleared, the stored soil nutrients disappear, and longer-term problems like soil erosion, and groundwater evaporation are initiated. The combination of nutrient poor soils and the unnatural growth of single species in concentrated areas inevitably results in a dependent cycle of agricultural chemical use.

In the short term, this intensive model produces higher yields which usually guarantee cheap and abundant supplies for coffee drinkers in affluent countries.

Sustainable coffee production

Traditional methods for growing coffee involve interplanting among a range of species which preserve some of the natural characteristics of the original rainforest habitat. A desire to preserve and maintain rainforest habitats underlies eco-labelling strategies which attempt to identify and popularise coffee grown in a sustainable manner.

The widespread acceptance of the Shade Grown label was initially encouraged by well-publicised surveys reporting decreases in migratory bird populations. Critics of eco-labelling question the intrinsic value of focusing on singular habitat issues without fully addressing the underlying social and economic factors which determine the nature of coffee production.

Organic methods of coffee production are labour intensive and cannot always provide impoverished farmers with adequate income to survive. The outcomes for organic farming usually depend on the stability of local economies and factors relating to social cohesion. Mexico is one of the world’s largest exporters of organically certified coffee. In their recent study, Bray, Sanchez, and Murphy (2001), evaluated the importance of strong social networks which enabled peasant farmers of La Selva to develop co-operatives which were effective in developing the infrastructure required to enter the competitive commercial market for organic produce. Their self organisation resulted in better prices for their coffee, improved access to training, and additional resources like health programs established within the communities. These benefits are often reported for coffee growers protected under the Fair Trade cooperative.

Addressing long-term inequality

As an internationally recognised non profit organisation, Fair Trade provides support to more than half a million coffee growers by attempting to establish transparent procedures in commodity pricing. Under the Fair Trade umbrella organic growers receive a premium for their produce, and in some locations growers receive assistance with environmental, community, and farm management problems.

Those initiatives seeking to promote ecological sustainability and improved conditions for coffee growers are attempting to correct long-term inequities in international trade. In terms of the total volume of coffee produced each year, Fair Trade accounts for a tiny percentage, as does Shade Grown, and Organically Certified. One of the truths which cannot be avoided is that wholesale prices for coffee are set too low. This is largely due to intensive production techniques which inevitably flood international markets with vast quantities of poor quality coffee. Bearing this in mind, reasonable and fair-minded consumers should not resent paying a few dollars extra for higher quality coffee meeting the criteria established for Organic Certification, Fair Trade, and Shade Grown initiatives.

According to longstanding tradition, beer is made from four natural ingredients. These are pure water, barley malt, hops, and yeast. In Germany, the standard is upheld through the purity law (Reinheitsgebot), which prevents brewers using additional or alternative ingredients in any product marketed as a beer. Outside Germany, there are plenty of beers containing mixed cereals, added sugar, flavouring compounds, and chemicals to increase storage capacity, creaminess, and clarity.

Making organic beer

Organic beer is made in the traditional manner, with pure, healthy ingredients. No chemical additives or genetically modified substances are used and the production facilities are routinely inspected to ensure compliance with organic certification requirements. Several decades ago, organic beer was marginalised and restricted to a small number of boutique breweries. Those brewers dedicated to organic production were frequently discouraged by the scarcity and poor quality of the ingredients offered to them.

Despite improved farming techniques and increased supplies, there remains an international shortage of premium organic ingredients. This can be attributed to the rapid expansion of consumer and market demand for organic beer, a trend which has encouraged several of the world’s major brewers to develop their own products. In choosing to purchase organic as opposed to conventional beer, most consumers are influenced by the environmental benefits of a sustainable agriculture in addition to the superior quality and taste of these products.

Raw materials

Like most manufactured beverages, the quality of beer is dependent on the integrity of raw ingredients and the production procedures employed. The process commences with whole grain barley which is converted to the malt used for brewing beer. Barley was one of the first grains to be cultivated and was the predominant food grain in medieval Europe until progressively replaced by its close relative, wheat, during the sixteenth century. Baere was its archaic English name, indicating the likely derivation for the word beer. Today, barley is still grown in significant volumes primarily as stock feed but also for use in wholegrain breads, as a table grain, and for beer and whiskey manufacturing.

The preferred varieties of barley are grown for their distinctive flavour characteristics. From the brewer’s perspective, an essential quality of barley grains is their ability to transform complex starches into malt sugars during germination. Damage caused by insect or disease infestation has the potential to interfere with germination, making the grains unsuitable for further processing. This partly explains why some brewers prefer to rely on conventionally grown barley which is routinely fumigated with insecticidal treatments. Another reason is the plentiful supply and lower cost of conventionally grown barley. One of the disadvantages of conventional barley can be elevated nitrogen levels caused by the application of chemical fertilisers. When the nitrogen content of barley is too high, the character of the finished beer is often compromised by a cloudy haze and lifeless palate.

The process

To encourage germination, barley grains are soaked in running water until softened then laid out and carefully raked every few hours for several days. Conventional maltsters may add alkaline chemicals like hydrogen peroxide to increase the germination rate.

When the grains are sufficiently germinated, they are roasted in kilns. The roasting temperature and kiln process will determine the characteristics of the malt. Roasted at high temperatures, the dark malts provide rich colour and flavours, particularly for the darker ales, and stouts. For most beer varieties it is the pale malts which are required in large volumes. Roasted at lower temperatures, pale malts contain higher percentages of the natural enzymes which enable the remaining starch to be converted into maltose, a highly fermentable type of sugar.

Once the malt has been milled, it is blended with hot water to create a porridge like mash. While traditional brewers depend upon natural enzymes in the malt, commercial products are often enhanced by the addition of yeast strains which increase conversion of starch to sugars. Among conventional brewing interests, there has been controversy surrounding the use of genetically modified strains. Beers with an organic certification are not permitted to use genetically modified strains of yeast.

When the starches are sufficiently converted, the malt is filtered to remove solid particles, which can be dried and sold as an ingredient for stock food. The sugary liquid remaining is called wort. This is then heated in a brewing vat along with hops, which are required for their distinctive bitterness and aromatic complexity.

Hops

The strength and flavour of hops are most influential in traditional brewing and largely determine the quality of the finished beer. Many varieties are susceptible to insect attack, mildew and fungal problems. This makes them challenging to grow without chemicals. Conventional growers routinely spray their plants with organo-phosphate pesticides, chemical fungicides, and their soils are likely to be exposed to nitrate fertiliser and weedkiller.

Rather than applying these chemicals, organic growers attempt to control problems with a combination of low impact strategies. These can include companion plantings, routine inspections, physical maintenance, and the use of safe materials such as soapy water, and white oil. The best protection against nuisance insects is to select an unaffected growing region. The relative isolation of New Zealand, for example, has prevented hop aphids from establishing and compromising the local hops industry.

Despite the enthusiasm and dedication of organic producers, they are overshadowed by the conventional industry and frequently struggle to maintain their economic viability. When attempting to obtain organically grown hops for their products, organic brewers are frequently disappointed by inconsistent supplies, and the small number of varieties available to them. The finest organic hops are currently grown in New Zealand, Germany, and Belgium.

After cooling, the hopped wort is fermented with the assistance of active yeast strains. On average, it takes around one week to convert most of the malt sugars to alcohol and carbon dioxide. The remaining sugars provide roundness and clarity to the beer. Some beers are conditioned with a charcoal filter to remove impurities. Commercial beers are usually pasteurised before being bottled or sealed inside barrel kegs.

Boutique products brewed for the connoisseur may be packaged with additional hops, sugar, and active yeast. This enables continued fermentation and increases the beers flavour and alcohol content. All of these processes are compatible with an organic approach to brewing. Next time you enjoy a refreshing glass of beer, reflect upon the importance of supporting a healthy, sustainable industry. Cheers.

A carefully selected wine has the potential to complement fine food and good company. In addition to offering enjoyment and pleasure, the moderate intake of wine has the potential to improve important aspects of physical health. Since the eighties, numerous studies have confirmed the health benefits of moderate wine consumption. Dry red wine, in particular, contains high concentrations of phenolic and other antioxidant compounds which are associated with a lowered incidence of coronary vascular disease.

These findings, along with various social and economic influences, contributed to the rise of the mass produced wine. Often sold in cardboard cask or flagons, their quality was often compromised by mechanised harvesting and the routine application of chemicals during cultivation and processing.

The steady sales growth of organically produced wine appears to highlight a change in consumer taste and purchasing behaviours. While the top end of the market has always focused on limited production vintages with distinctive characteristics, the middle range has now followed with its rejection of mass-produced wines of average or lower quality. According to surveys conducted by an independent liquor traders union, the majority of consumers now prefer to spend a little extra to obtain something distinctive.

The organic approach

The organic approach encourages the grower and winemaker to obtain the best quality without relying on chemicals or technical shortcuts. In many respects, organic winemaking represents a return to the traditional approaches which once facilitated wines of great distinction.

One of the fundamental requirements for producing distinctive organic wine is the ability to match the unique characteristics of each growing region with the most suitable varieties of grape.

In general, it is easier to grow quality grapes without chemicals in warm and reasonably dry climates. These conditions offer some natural protection against the problematic moulds and other diseases which tend to infect vines growing in damp or humid climates. Further protection may be secured by choosing a physical site with optimum sunlight and air circulation.

The ideal soil is sufficiently deep with medium fertility and excellent drainage characteristics. Deep soils encourage strong root growth which enables the vines to flourish with minimal rainfall. Experienced growers ensure their vines receive only enough water to survive. Any additional watering may contribute to disease or accelerate the growth of vines. Choosing soils with medium fertility also restricts any tendency for excessive vine growth and the production of large grapes. Excessive vine growth is a waste of resources and may contribute to undesirable elevations of humidity.

The ideal situation is to concentrate all of the vines energy into the production of smaller sized grapes. Since much of a wines distinctive flavour is derived from the grape’s outer skin, smaller ones are generally preferred for their higher ratio of skin to juice. One consequence of smaller grapes is their lower yield. This effectively increases the cost of production per volume unit, accounting for some of the price difference between high quality and average wine.

The conventional approach

Most conventional wine production is now reliant on a significant number of agricultural and other chemical substances. Contrary to misinformed reports, many vines are repeatedly treated with applications of pesticide and fungicide. Weeds are routinely sprayed with herbicide to prevent them interfering with the vines. Over time, these practices will destroy microbial organisms, resulting in a progressive degradation of the soils natural ability to support healthy plant growth.

Once the soil is weakened in this manner, vines may require chemical fertilisers to keep them alive. Conventional vineyards seeking organic certification are usually subjected to a three year conversion period to ensure their practices comply with the specified standards. During this time soils are tested for natural fertility and residual pesticides. Unfortunately, many of the older types of organo-chloride pesticide have the nasty habit of breaking down so slowly that their residual components remain trapped in the soil and food chain for many years.

Sulphites

When grapes are grown naturally, in healthy soils, there is plenty of incentive to avoid unnecessary additives during the winemaking process. One class of additive which continues to generate controversy within the organic wine industry are the sulphite compounds.

Like other natural foods, stored wine can be attacked by oxygen, and bacteria. In serious cases, this will initiate unwanted oxidation and fermentation, resulting in a spoiled product. To prevent costly losses, most contemporary winemakers treat their wine and equipment with sulphite preservatives. The most widely used substance is sulphur dioxide which can be extracted as a by-product of petroleum processing. Natural sulphites can also be isolated from mined sulphur. In France fluidsouftre are permitted additives in organic wine, providing their concentrations are maintained within the (low) maximum limits.

The fact that low levels of sulphite compounds are created naturally during the fermentation process has occasionally been used to legitimise the use of sulphite additives by winemakers. There is also the argument that sulphites are added to most wines, including those of distinction, to ensure their stability over time. Whatever point of view is accepted, there is little doubt that excessive sulphites will ruin a wine with their slightly bitter taste. They can also cause headaches and respiratory problems in susceptible individuals.

As history demonstrates, it is possible to create most varieties of wine without the addition of sulphite preservatives. This largely depends on how carefully the grapes and wine are handled and stored during all phases of the winemaking process.

Terroir and organic wine making

In France, the term terroir is closely associated with the creation of distinctive wine. Terroir is sometimes translated as the sum of environmental inputs which contribute to the unique characteristics of a wine. These include the region, its climate, soil quality, and natural ecosystems, in participation with the agricultural and technical inputs which support the vines and enable the grapes to be crafted into wine.

While many of us are captivated by stereotypical images of easily gained abundance, the reality for organic growers is usually hard won gains achieved through effective planning and old-fashioned effort. By encouraging biodiversity within their vineyards, organic growers reduce the impact of many insect pests and diseases which might otherwise threaten the vines. For example, instead of spraying herbicide to control weeds, organic growers might select cover crops such as clover or rye grass. These provide habitat for the predatory or beneficial insects which limit populations of destructive ones.

Rather than fortifying weakened soils with externally sourced chemicals, organic growers develop natural methods for protecting and sustaining the structure and ecology of their vineyard soils. This involves the use of cover crops to prevent erosion and the recycling of prunings and pressed grape pulp as valuable composting ingredients.

An emphasis on natural recycling might be one of the best ways to ensure that the vineyard’s terroir is adequately reflected in the finished product. Visualise a funnel which concentrates the diverse components of a pollution free environment. Some traditional winemakers like to treat the vineyard as a closed system. This is often revealed through the choice of yeasts employed to ferment the grapes. In well established locations, a vineyard may contain sufficient concentrations of wild yeast to facilitate the process. Wild yeast populations typically require years to develop so are rarely an option for recently established vineyards.

Organic certification

There are certainly a significant number of winemakers who craft their products according to sustainable organic principles, yet choose not to advertise this fact. When organic wine was first introduced, there was resistance from traditionalists who viewed certification and labelling as a marketing gimmick. Throughout the previous decade, participants within the organic wine industry have demonstrated integrity and delivered quality products to the extent that the earlier reservations are rarely encountered.

Many winemakers consider protection of the environment and avoidance of harmful additives to be a vital component of their tradition and lifestyle. Since the ability to achieve refined quality over many years is hard won, it is not surprising that some experienced winemakers remain resistant to the externally applied standards of organic certification bodies. Occasionally there may be disagreements over the interpretation or application of some organic principle. In other examples, the vineyard or its output may be too small to justify the additional expense and paperwork associated with organic certification. As a consequence, the wine must be sold without an organic label. This limits participation and ultimately weakens the organic wine industry. For this reason there is genuine need for constructive exchange and cooperation between winemakers of integrity and the organic certification bodies. A failure to confirm organic status to technically qualified winemakers can only disadvantage the vineyard’s reputation and ultimately consumer commitment to the product.

Many individuals now depend upon organic labelling to help them differentiate safe products from those which possibly contain pesticide residue and other chemical contaminants.

Sugar, honey, and other natural sweeteners are an important source of pleasure. They are frequently used in drinks, cakes, biscuits, sauces, candy, and many other indulgence foods. Unfortunately, most of the sugar appearing on supermarket shelves is highly refined, which means that it is stripped of the nutrients which were originally present in the plants from which it was derived.

Highly refined sugar and our health

Highly refined sugars and sweeteners provide what dieticians describe as empty calories. These provide a form of energy which can be used by the body but do not contribute to its longer term maintenance, repair, or vitality. When taken, the body must use the calories as a source of immediate energy or begin a complicated process which eventually stores them within fat cells.

Most health experts agree that the western diet now contains too many refined sugars. The long-term consequences include increased levels of obesity and the associated conditions like cardiovascular disease, diabetes, kidney disease, and certain forms of cancer. In order to avoid the health problems associated with obesity, it is important to exercise and maintain a well balanced diet. For many individuals this may require lowering the daily intake of refined sugar and other sweeteners. Providing there is an emphasis on fresh vegetables, whole grains, and lean protein, it is generally acceptable to consume small quantities of raw organic sugar, molasses, and honey.

The refining process

Sugar is a common food term for the basic carbohydrate, sucrose, which is commercially extracted from plants like sugarcane, sugarbeet, corn, and maple trees. Most of the refined white sugar available from the supermarket is sourced from cane plantations.

After harvesting, sugarcane is squeezed through a pulping mill. The syrupy liquids can be carefully evaporated until a dark crystalline substance emerges. This is the unrefined raw sugar which actually contains a significant quantity of vitamins and minerals, in addition to sucrose. A small quantity of this is cleaned to remove impurities and sold mostly in health food shops and specialty food suppliers. This raw sugar can be expensive to purchase but it tastes better and is usually offered in upmarket cafes and restaurants. Most of the cane syrup will be subjected to a multiple crystallisation process which involves the use of chemical solvents and filtering technology. The sugar is progressively refined to remove the darker compounds which are collectively known as molasses. Most consumers purchase the refined white sugar with minimal nutrient content. The molasses is undoubtedly the better choice for some applications, since it contains some essential nutrients and a more complex flavour profile than white sugar.

Sugarcane is currently the world’s most cultivated crop, with vast expanses of plantation scattered throughout tropical and subtropical regions. A lot of sugar is grown in developing countries where multinational and local corporations can secure cheap labour and experience fewer trade restrictions.The majority of sugarcane growers depend upon applications of herbicide to control weeds which compete with the developing crop. Pesticide use varies according to each location but is considered moderate in comparison to other plantation resources like coffee, cocoa, and bananas.

Sugarcane alternatives

Sugarbeet and corn can both be grown in cooler and drier climates than sugarcane. The products obtained from sugarbeet are very similar in taste and appearance to refined white cane sugar. They contain minimal nutrients and will have been exposed to many food grade chemicals during the extraction and refining process. Corn syrup was once a staple food item in the southern parts of the United States. In its natural state, corn syrup contains more nutrients than refined cane sugar. New manufacturing processes have resulted in a High Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS) which is much sweeter than the standard syrup. Because it has become increasingly economical to extract and process, corn syrup now constitutes a significant proportion of the total sugars used in manufactured foods. An unknown percentage of these foods will contain syrup extracted from genetically modified corn.

Maple Syrup is extracted from the Canadian Maple tree and requires minimal processing to remove impurities. There are two grades, light and dark. The light syrup is delicately flavoured and expensive while the dark grade syrup is distinctively flavoured, and is generally less expensive with a slightly better nutrient profile. Many Canadian growers are committed to the organic movement. Organically certified maple syrup is a premium sugar source that is minimally transformed and well worth using whenever practical.

Demand for organic sugar

There is currently a huge demand for organically certified cane sugar and other natural sweeteners. This must be derived from organically grown sugar cane which is then processed without the use of synthetic chemicals. Wholesale stocks of organic sugar are now purchased by large food manufacturing companies which have developed their own range of organic products. At the moment, organic sugar is imported from Brazil, Paraguay, and many smaller countries with emerging economies.

Organic sugar production is better for the environment in several ways. By avoiding synthetic fertilisers, organic plantations are less likely to increase the salinity of local soils and groundwater. To avoid their plantations being overwhelmed by weeds, organic growers tend to harvest a single crop from each planting before rotating their fields to another crop. This helps protect the soils from nutrient depletion. With chemical treatments, conventional growers usually extract several annual crops from a single planting.

Honey

There has been plenty of confusion surrounding the development of acceptable standards for organic honey production. When asked to comment, most apiarists insist that honey is a completely natural substance. It comes directly from bees and flowers. In most cases it probably does, but many consumers are cautious to ensure the integrity of the source.

The basic criteria for organic honey are that hives should be located in a natural environment unaffected by industrial manufacturing, pollution, or agricultural chemical applications. Organic certification should ensure that honey contains no detectable levels of environmental pollutants or chemical contamination. This protects the natural enzymes, pollen, and biologically active compounds which distinguish high grade honey from other natural sweeteners.