Organic specialty drinks

Over recent years there has been a steady increase in the availability of specialty drinks containing organically certified ingredients. For the sake of descriptive accuracy, specialty drinks can be categorised according to their distinctive properties and their targeted market.

The first group are the manufactured drinks associated with therapeutic health benefits. The primary consumers of therapeutic drinks are health conscious individuals between thirty and fifty five years of age. When interviewed, the majority of consumers claim to select these products based on a combination of current scientific evidence, the recommendation of health professionals, and advertising claims. The most popular products are those containing antioxidant compounds and vitamins.

The next category includes electrolyte replacement and sports drinks. These are primarily aimed at the youthfully active, between fifteen and thirty years. Many of these products are marketed through elite and developing athlete sponsorship deals and the promotion of selected sporting events.

Recreational and caffeinated energy drinks constitute a third category. With the exception of some leading brands, these products tend to be narrowly profiled toward particular socio-cultural groups within the fifteen to forty year age bracket. For example, one product we investigated was exclusively restricted to hotels and nightclubs despite being a non-alcoholic beverage. A separate trio of high caffeine energy drinks was launched at a conference attended by recent law graduates.

The fourth category to be discussed here encompasses the juice drinks and cordials which are formulated to appeal to children between one and ten years of age. Many of these are associated with popular media, animated cartoon, and computer games imagery.

Health promotion

Organic drinks offering therapeutic health benefits are now widely available in whole food stores, supermarkets, gymnasiums, and health retreats. In many respects, their popularity is determined by the overall quality and acceptance of the wider range of manufactured products known as functional foods. This category emerged from Japan in the late eighties and was originally defined to identify processed foods which contain ingredients to enhance or protect specific bodily functions.

The current definition of functional food appears to have widened to include natural substances with the potential for widely distributed physiological benefits. Examples of these include products containing probiotics, green tea and olive leaf extracts, acai berries, and various herbal compounds like ginko, liquorice, and sarsparilla.

Drinks containing green tea extracts and acai berries have been promoted for their antioxidant properties and complex polyphenols which are believed to neutralise oxidated molecules which can progressively damage living tissue. Organic certification provides an assurance that these products contain ingredients derived from uncontaminated sources, with an emphasis upon maintaining the integrity of their natural therapeutic properties.

Sports drinks

The organically certified sports drinks are primarily designed for athletes and active individuals who need to replace fluids, glucose, and electrolytes, during, and after strenuous periods of exercise.

Consultant sports physiologist Kerrie Burt recommends drinking at least two glasses of plain water prior to exercising. “Drinks containing glucose and electrolyte will actually restrict the effective absorption of water during this time. They are more effective at delivering the mixture of fluids, glucose, and electrolyte required once the body is heated and actively engaged in physical activity. We now talk about cells in terms of their fluid storage capacity”, advises Ms Burt. “We’re looking for good supplies of intracellular fluid before an event. Once core temperature rises, the fluid gets released from the cells to enable evaporative cooling across the skin. At the same time muscles and organs have an increased demand for energy as well as the soluble minerals which regulate their increased metabolic functioning”.

She believes that sports drinks are more important than most people realise. “There have been some sarcastic comments about the sports drink industry, but you only hear praise from the coaches and athletes”, says Ms Burt. The science is very advanced and the organically certified products are right on the cutting edge.

Energy drinks

Organic energy drinks are a relatively new concept. Until recently most of these products were based on the conventional formula of carbonated water, sugar, caffeine, various flavourings and preservative. With the increased competition among established and emerging products, several manufacturers have focused on healthier organic products. These are often based on sophisticated yet natural juice flavours like cranberry, guarana, and lychee. They typically contain less added sugar and caffeine than regular energy drinks, although they may contain herbal supplements like ginko which is known to improve memory and concentration. The emerging markets for these products include China, and much of South East Asia.

Drinks for children

While addressing health concerns of parents and caregivers, organic products designed for children must also accommodate taste preferences which may not necessarily apply to adults. This is particularly true of the processed fruit juices and cordials which are often sweetened with sugar and other natural food additives.

When asked for their comments, individuals purchasing these products were somewhat ambivalent on the issue of sugar content. While there was widespread acknowledgement that excessive dietary sugar leads to problems with obesity and dental decay, there was also a belief that healthy kids tend to restrict their own sugar intake, providing they have access to a well balanced diet most of the time.

The adults interviewed were more concerned about the possibility of pesticide and other chemical compounds entering the food chain and affecting their child’s development. Children are more susceptible to a wide range of chemical pollutants and toxins due to the immaturity of their excretory organs and immune systems. Because they contain fruit concentrates sourced from local and overseas suppliers, many conventional juice products contain residual traces of organophosphate and carbamate compounds.

Organic juices and cordials are made from fruit which is raised naturally, without chemical interference. When you find organic varieties the kids enjoy, make use of them as a special treat in preference to conventional varieties. However, make sure your children are also drinking plenty of water and milk, preferably certified organic milk.

Organic dairy substitutes - soy milk

Soybeans contain higher amounts of protein and fat than similar plant based foods. They contain many of the essential amino acids along with B group vitamins and minerals. Soybeans are also a rich source of isoflavones and phyto oestrogens, the natural plant hormones which are now believed to protect the body against certain forms of cancer, heart disease, and osteoporosis. They have been cultivated as an important food source in China, Japan, and Korea for thousands of years. In Japan today, soybean products are still used in preference to most animal sourced dairy items. As part of their traditional approach to food, the Japanese have developed very precise and accurate techniques for evaluating the quality of soybeans.

Until recently, the western application of soybeans was limited to lower grade varieties which were mainly harvested for applications in the processed food industry or as a protein rich feed for farm animals. There had also been interest in promoting higher quality soybeans as a staple food for regions with marginal and emerging economies.

Genetic modification

Developments in biotechnology have led to modification of soybean strains which enable them to resist widespread and repeated applications of herbicide used to control weeds after sowing. This has increased the operational scale and efficiency of large output producers but has also concentrated unprecedented economic influence with organisations in control of the new technologies.

With a lack of research-based evidence, many of the earlier debates and controversies regarding genetically modified foods appear to have subsided. An obvious exception is perhaps, the resistance among parents and child health workers who refuse to accept assurances that modified soy ingredients are appropriate for use in infant formula. Soy protein isolates are currently used in several of the products which are commonly prescribed for lactose intolerant infants and those with specific allergies to dairy foods.

Pesticide contamination

Conventionally produced soybeans often contain traces of pesticide and other agricultural chemicals. Since most modern pesticides are carefully designed to break down to less harmful compounds over time, dangerous levels of contamination will usually arise from persistent soil residues of banned substances like dieldrin.

Organic soybean crops

To meet organic certification standards, producers undertake comprehensive soil testing to exclude the possibility of pesticide contamination from previous applications. All forms of genetic modification are specifically prohibited under organic certification guidelines. High quality, organically produced soybeans can be sourced from many countries, although these now command significant premiums over the market price for conventional or genetically modified produce. Because they remain susceptible to several species of insect pest, organic producers usually rotate their soybeans with corn, oats, wheat, and other grains. When grown intermittently, every third season for example, the normal development cycle for many of these pests is disrupted.

As a food source

In their basic form, soybeans are difficult to digest. Anyone attempting to prepare them is likely to be confronted with a tough, dry, and bitter tasting bean which doesn’t appear overly promising. An appropriate solution is to soak then grind the beans into a nutritious paste which is then filtered to produce an evenly textured milk which remains slightly bitter but can be consumed directly. In many countries, this pure substance is heated then blended with vegetable oils, corn syrup, and other ingredients to simulate the flavour and texture of cows milk. Soymilk can be further processed into the soft curd, popularly known as tofu. This versatile substance is used in many Asian dishes where it’s uniform and delicate taste contrasts with the pungent flavours of fresh herbs like garlic, ginger, lemongrass, and spicy peppers. Soybeans are also used to manufacture fermented foods such as tempeh, miso, and tamari. The fermentation provides distinctive flavour and allows soy protein to be more easily digested.

Twenty years ago, soy products were subject to a range of negative associations and stereotypes. Initially described as bland and tasteless, they were not appreciated beyond a subculture of vegetarians, vegans, and alternative health seekers. For older generations, dietary inclusion of soy products was often initiated as a consequence of medical or health related factors. Patients with arteriosclerosis, heart disease, diabetes and other lifestyle related illnesses were frequently advised to replace cows milk with soymilk. Under these conditions, a defensive response was not unusual and many patients seem to have experienced negative reactions to the taste, texture, and smell of soymilk products.

In order to establish their products in a positive light, one prominent manufacturer of soymilk now engages athletes and sporting personalities to promote it as a wholesome food with significant health benefits. Popular acceptance of soymilk has paved the way for related products like tofu, miso, and tempeh. Today, it is easy enough to find terrific recipes for these in popular food magazines and their internet sites.       

A return to the art of cheese making

Today, there are an incredible variety of organic cheese products available from almost every region of the world. Frequently named as one of the most basic and historically ancient foods, cheese continues to distinguish itself with the ongoing popularity of five traditional varieties. The big five include fetta, mozzarella, Parmesan, Swiss and cheddar. Visit your nearest continental delicatessen and ask the proprietor about cheese sales. Whether you live in New York, London, or Sydney, the big five will represent around seventy percent of total cheese sales. Each of the big five varieties is produced in extremely large volumes every year with vast differences in quality between the premium and average grades of cheese. There are of course many contemporary cheese makers who prefer to avoid high volume and mainstream production to pursue one or more of the artisanal varieties.

High quality raw materials

The overall quality and nutritional value of any cheese is undoubtedly determined by the quality of its raw ingredients. Primarily this involves milk, whether it is sourced from cows, goat, sheep, buffalo, yak, or reindeer. A second, most important ingredient is the culture or bacterial enzymes required to initiate the curd. Other ingredients used to flavour boutique and dessert cheeses can include herbs, fruit, nuts, and grains.

Nutritional analyses of milk from pasture fed cows have revealed significantly higher amounts of linoleic acid compared to the milk from grain fed animals. At certain times of the year, notably spring and autumn, pasture fed milk is likely to contain up to five times the linoleic acid content of milk produced through grain feeds. Linoleic acid has been linked to a reduced incidence of certain types of cancer.

There are also studies which reveal organic milk to have higher proportions of vitamin E, beta carotene, and Omega 3 fatty acids compared to conventional milk. Vitamin E and beta-carotene are important antioxidants while Omega 3 can assist in lowering blood cholesterol levels. In combination, these reports suggest that organic milk obtained from pasture fed animals provides superior nutritional qualities than alternative supplies. While many people have become accustomed to the watery taste of low fat milk, the creamier texture of milk obtained from healthy, pasture fed animals remains the best ingredient for making most varieties of cheese.

One hundred years ago, the majority of cheeses were handmade in small batches using fresh local ingredients. Depending on the variety and desired vintage, finished cheeses were coated in wax then left to mature slowly in underground cellars. Since that time, advancements in manufacturing technology have resulted in commercial operations which deliver large volumes of standardised product to supermarkets and convenience stores around the country. The cheeses are made in anonymous dairy processing factories with fresh and powdered milk, preservative, stabilisers, synthetic cultures, and a range of other additives including colouring agents, flavours, and thickeners. From uniform blocks, the cheese is then sliced, shredded, or even pressed into fancy shapes before shrink-wrapping in retail or commercial catering packets.

While most supermarkets appear to have a reasonably wide selection of cheeses, it is quite possible that eighty or ninety percent are manufactured by the same processor before being represented as a particular packaged brand. With few exceptions, these mass produced cheeses are somewhat bland and lifeless compared with traditionally made varieties. Considering the distinctive differences in ingredients and process, this is not particularly surprising.

Traditional cheese making

Traditional cheese makers begin with whole milk and rarely if ever use powdered or low fat substitutes. In many regions of Europe, it is standard practice to use raw, unpasteurised milk in cheese. True cheese contains a living bacterial culture and raw milk provides a superior environment for the controlled growth of selected strains. Some experts consider that the stronger cultures of unpasteurised whole milk ensure superior flavour and texture. Others prefer to compromise a little on taste to ensure the hygiene and safety advantages of pasteurised whole milk.

At present, the manufacture and sale of raw milk cheeses is prohibited in many states on account of health and agricultural quarantine regulations. Because it represents a traditional method of cheese making still practiced in many regions of the world today, the controversy surrounding the availability of raw milk cheeses is likely to continue. Consumers should be advised that it is certainly possible to obtain very high quality and flavoursome cheeses which are fashioned from pasteurised whole milk. Traditional cheeses may also depend upon the milk provided by other ruminant animals such as sheep, reindeer, buffalo, goats, and yak.

In Southern Tasmania, David Hagarty fashions a unique cheese he refers to as a “boccinoli”. Made from pasteurised goats milk, the cheese has a mild peppery taste and is perfect for use in slow baked dishes where it melts soft and elastic beneath a firm surface, similar to true mozzarella. Operating on an intimate scale, David supplies his boccinoli to several vineyards in the region. At present the cheese is only available between January and March although he anticipates extending his season over the next few years. “We’ve just bought another acre of land”, he explains. “When it’s properly fenced, we’ll buy a few more milking goats from an organic farm in Victoria”. So if you’re ever passing through the Huon Valley, ask a few of the locals about David and his boccinoli.

There’s little doubt that organic cheese production is worth pursuing, in spite of the high costs involved. Like wine, the individual qualities of cheese are largely determined by the foundations of climate and soil which uniquely characterise each area. This fact is apparently lost on the dairy conglomerates which purchase successful regional brands then rationalise them by importing cheaper milk from elsewhere.

In the interests of promoting their unique cheese varieties, local producers now frequently offer group tours and appreciation courses. When combined with a selection of red wines, there cannot be a more enjoyable approach to learning the complexities and subtleties of this fascinating food. Ordering mixed cheese platters instead of dessert is another convenient approach for those wishing to sample a variety of local and imported cheeses.

Organic milk and cream

Anyone who visits a reputable organic dairy farm will begin to appreciate that the quality and taste of milk, cream, and other products is largely determined by the living conditions of the animals, particularly their access to healthy pasture. Cows have a complex digestive system which enables them to process and absorb nutrients from fibrous plant material like grass, dandelion, and clover. Milk obtained from grass fed cows is particularly rich in important vitamins and minerals.

Under normal dietary conditions, the fat content of cows milk is determined largely by the breed and the time of year. Jersey cows produce moderate quantities of milk with a high proportion of buttermilk compared to Fresian and Holstein cows, which provide large volumes of milk with relatively low buttermilk content. With pasture fed cows, the milk tends to be creamier and also contains a higher proportion of linoleic acid during the spring and autumn.

Linoleic is one of the essential fatty acids which assist cells to maintain their protective barrier and function normally. Research from Britain and Denmark has compared the nutrient compositions of organic and conventionally produced milk. Many of the recent studies have disputed claims that the nutrient composition of organic milk is essentially equivalent to conventional. For example, Danish scientists found organic milk to be significantly higher in vitamin E and beta carotene. Three independent research bodies in Britain confirmed the presence of higher levels of Omega 3 fatty acids in organic milk (Ellis et al, 2006).

Intensive dairy production

In many parts of the world, traditional methods of dairy production have been replaced by intensive systems which aim to increase the total volume of milk supplied. Among the more unpleasant examples of intensive farming is dairy production without access to pasture. Unfortunate cows are restricted to artificial feedlots, or cages. Their natural, herbivorous grazing is replaced by a controlled diet of high protein mixtures, euphemistically described as cattle cake. A protein rich diet accelerates the cow’s metabolism, enabling them to produce larger quantities of milk each day. Depending on supplies, cattle cake contains basic grains like wheat, barley, rice, and oats plus alfalfa, and soy meal.

During the nineties, controversy surrounded revelations that intensively reared beef and dairy cattle were given rendered feeds containing animal proteins like fish meal along with recycled beef and sheep carcasses. Many of the high volume dairy operators refuse to blame rendered protein feeds with sudden outbreaks of disease.

Growth hormones and antibiotics

There is also substantial industry support for the use of synthetic growth hormone, and antibiotic treatments. In states which authorise its use, dairy cattle may be given synthetic growth hormone as a means to increase normal milk production by approximately fifteen percent. The negative side effects on cattle include reproductive difficulties and an increased incidence of udder infection which usually requires antibiotic treatment. In terms of the qualitative effect on milk, growth hormones increase normal levels of growth factor. At present, there is ongoing debate about the potential for increased levels of growth factor to adversely influence human health.

In dairy cattle, antibiotics are primarily used to treat udder and hoof infections. On occasions, weanling calves will be administered sub therapeutic levels of an antibiotic to enhance their growth and development.

Unlike poultry and beef, milk products are routinely tested for antibiotic contamination and those with detectable levels are immediately removed from distribution. In reality, this is not enforced because of concerns for human health but rather because antibiotics prevent the manufacture of important food items such as yoghurt and cheeses, by destroying their bacterial cultures.

If traces of antibiotic are unlikely to be present in the milk supply, what are the consumer groups and medical scientists worried about? Their concern is that routine use of these medications in farmed animals is creating new strains of antibiotic resistant bacteria. Once established in significant colonies, resistant strains have the capacity to infect humans. The illnesses caused by infectious agents like salmonella and listeria are increasingly difficult to treat with conventional antibiotics. The lack of regular treatment options can have serious implications for infants, the elderly, and patients with compromised immune function.

At the present time, organically certified milk and cream products constitute only a small fraction of total milk sales by volume (Hill & Lynchehaun, 2002). Interestingly, a lot of the organic milk is currently being sold to upmarket coffee houses where it is used in latte, cappuccino, and other drinks.

Consumer preferences

Health conscious consumers generally prefer their milk to have low saturated fat content, less than two percent. There is also some evidence that consumers prefer the appearance and taste of homogenised milk.

During the homogenisation process, milk is forced through micro strainers under pressure. This causes solid fat particles to break apart resulting in an even dispersion throughout the liquid.  Organic producers often refuse to homogenise their milk, meaning that the fat will rise naturally to the top as cream. Don’t confuse homogenisation with pasteurisation, which involves heating the milk to inhibit the growth of bacteria. Organic dairy producers are obliged to pasteurise their milk in compliance with current health and safety standards.

Raw milk

Some health gurus and food writers like to preach the benefits of raw milk which is unpasteurised. Aside from being banned from sale in many states, you’d want to be certain that the cows were scrupulously healthy and the extraction and bottling procedures were conducted hygienically. It’s true that raw milk was widely consumed one hundred years ago but there was also a lower life expectancy and many deaths related to contaminated foods. If you insist on drinking raw milk, have a word with your doctor beforehand.
 

Shellfish - a more sustainable option?

In terms of enduring popularity, many species of prawn, shrimp, lobster, crab, scallop, abalone, mussel, and oyster are highly rated. This is particularly apparent in regions of North Asia, where the ability to source exotic seafood is frequently seen as an important status symbol. In the wild, these creatures depend upon a clean environment with plentiful stocks of marine plankton, fish and other organisms. Many of the crustaceans are natural scavengers, living among floating sea grasses, rocky shelves and reefs. They provide an essential service by consuming marine detritus before it spoils and alters water quality. The bivalves, including clams, oysters, scallops, and mussels, obtain most of their nutrients through fluid filtration, leaving them particularly vulnerable to adverse changes in water quality. Many of these creatures are harvested from the wild by commercial and amateur fishers. There is also captive rearing which has been practiced for centuries in many regions of the world.

Prawn farming

Commercial prawn farming attracts levels of controversy similar to that of farmed salmon. While their food conversion efficiency is almost twice that of salmon, they are dependent on the same unsustainable supplies of fish meal and oils.

As an industry, some of the largest commercial prawn farming operations have been established in developing countries with extensive coastal access. In attempts to increase their efficiency and profits, prawn farmers have encroached upon important marine habitats such as the coastal wetland and mangrove forests of tropical Asia. These habitats which are also destroyed by other forms of land reclamation and development are among the most ecologically diverse on the planet. Within Asia alone, several million acres of pond have been developed for the farmed prawn industry. This enables several hundred thousand tons of prawns to be produced each year along with jobs and income for the respective regions.

The impact on coastal environments

From an environmental perspective, these short term economic advantages are often outweighed by their lack of sustainability and negative impact on other natural resources. The damage caused by poorly managed farms is often dramatic. When biological waste and other pollutants get drained from concrete ponds into coastal waterways, they influence water chemistry by increasing salinity and reducing the oxygen carrying capacity. At the same time, untreated prawn effluent encourages disease and bacterial organisms to multiply.

It is however unrealistic to avoid the fact that the prawn industry has enabled some previously isolated regions to develop an infrastructure of housing, roads, hospitals, and schools.

The most practical solution at this point appears to be a combination of industry restructuring and the implementation of tighter controls. From an environmental perspective, an efficient and effectively regulated farming sector is required since the demand for prawns cannot be attained by other sustainable means. Net trawling not only kills several endangered species of fish and turtle, it rakes sediment and can alter the normal growth of natural corals and kelp plantations.

Oyster and mussel farming

For centuries, oysters and mussels have been raised in captivity either as a food source or for the cultured pearl industry. Unlike farmed prawns, they gather their nutrients directly from seawater and have minimal impact on the surrounding environment.

In recent times, some of the food scares associated with edible farmed bivalves have resulted in stricter hygiene regulations and increased monitoring of water conditions.

On a regional basis, the farmed oyster industry has experienced difficult times. This has been attributed to climate change, decreased water purity, and the social and economic factors which influence such labour intensive operations.

The traditional model of building farms along the harbours and tidal rivers of populated areas is rapidly declining. Despite numerous restrictions which have resulted in cleaner waterways with improved safety, there are still too many risks for farms situated near population centres. This has resulted in a gradual shift toward species which can be accommodated in remote cooler regions with less exposure to industrial discharge, sewage, and other forms of pollution. They are reared in seawater enclosures and distributed directly to fresh produce markets and restaurants.

Organic certification and the future of farmed shellfish

Organic standards for farmed shellfish are slowly coming into effect, and there are predictions that bivalves such as oysters and mussels will be highly successful in terms of their sustainability, cost efficiency and popularity with consumers. Organically farmed prawns are currently available in Europe and the United States. There is increased investor interest in prawn farming precipitated by the development of cost effective organic feeds and a water sterilisation system based on ultra violet radiation.

Consumers are increasingly aware of the environmental damage and health risks associated with conventional farming practices. They are looking for healthy shellfish raised in controlled environments, unaltered by chemical toxins, genetic modification, or antibiotics.

Wild fish

Edible fish is a popular and important food resource in many regions of the world. A seventy percent majority of the overall supply is obtained from wild stocks frequenting oceans, coastal estuaries, and inland rivers.

Since the beginning of the industrial age, the natural habitats of wild fish stocks have suffered from various forms of pollution and ecological degradation. Recent surveys of wild fish populations have confirmed the negative impact of commercial fishing. Well publicised depletions include the orange roughy, bluefin tuna, swordfish, and toothfish. With the technologies currently available to large scale commercial fishing enterprises, it is not surprising that wild fish stocks are decreasing. Migratory ocean fish like tuna are routinely tracked with sophisticated satellite and sonar equipment. Factory fleets contain entire seagoing workforces trained to process vast quantities of frozen seafood for the supermarket chillers.

Quota restrictions are ineffective

Most attempts to regulate and control overfishing are based on establishing quota restrictions within national maritime boundaries (exclusive economic zones) and bans on fishing endangered species in international waters.

Regional quotas and other restrictions have altered the commercial fishing industry by favouring well-established organisations at the expense of small or seasonal operators. While economic rationalists might appreciate the inherent efficiency of eliminating weaker competitors, the impact upon most fish stocks has been largely negative. Consider the scenario of a bad fishing season with numerous small operators competing for limited supplies of fish. Under financial necessity, some of the operators may choose to reduce or suspend their fishing activities until stocks improve. The unfilled quota can be sold on to competitors but may not be an attractive proposition unless the competitors own quota can be easily filled. This situation often results in unfilled quota which will then assist the short term recovery of fish populations. When large and well-established operators dominate the fishing industry, there is an increased catch efficiency which tends to override the impact of declining fish populations. This creates fewer opportunities for unfilled quotas and short-term recovery.

At present, there is limited consensus regarding the methods which should be applied to determine effective quotas and restrictions on various endangered fish species. Sceptics of the current system claim that many of the statistical methods used to estimate population densities are flawed, resulting in substantial errors.

Even when there is widespread acknowledgement of serious species decline, there is always the opportunity for significant economic interests to prevail. This is clearly evident in the case of orange roughie which has recently been exposed to an Australian government approved quota in excess of five hundred tonnes each year. While this is modest in comparison to the unrestricted hauls of earlier decades, there is little doubt that current populations are less than ten percent of those existing prior to commercial exploitation in the seventies and eighties. Orange roughie is an extremely popular table fish which inhabits deeper waters and requires many decades to mature. Adult specimens engage in large spawning aggregations, leaving themselves exposed to easy capture. At the height of their seasonal exploitation in the early eighties, up to five tonnes were being removed every hour off the coast of New Zealand.

Illegal fishing

As many wild fish populations continue to decline, those remaining are increasingly vulnerable to the illegal fishing trade. The economic value of seafood has resulted in a sophisticated network of recalcitrants who risk serious penalties and widespread condemnation to generate illicit profits. Unlike the earlier stereotype of small and desperate outfits, most of the illegal operations are now efficient and well resourced. They are financed by international criminals, dubious corporations, and in some instances they operate under the tacit consent of sovereign states and territories.

Eco-labelling

In view of these problems, it is helpful when consumers of seafood can clearly identify those fish which are legally captured in healthy environments under ecologically sustainable guidelines. This approach has been taken in several countries which use eco friendly labelling schemes to encourage long term sustainability within the fishing industry. There are also encouraging efforts to apply similar labelling on an international basis. Ultimately, the success of these initiatives will depend upon developing new collaborative research networks and the uniform approach to practical issues like standardised naming of individual fish species.   

Seawater fish farming

Until recently, ocean based aquaculture has focused on a limited range of fish species. Atlantic salmon remains the predominant species, with smaller stocks of ocean trout, sea bass, cod, and halibut.

The farmed salmon industry began in Scotland and Norway during the seventies and the technology was gradually distributed to other locations, including the southern hemisphere. Today, salmon are intensively farmed in the cool coastal regions of Iceland, North America, Ireland, Chile, Australia, and New Zealand.

When affected by deficient planning or management, seawater farms have the capacity to severely threaten coastal environments and disrupt their natural ecosystems. Choosing an appropriate site is probably the most critical consideration for effective waste management and pollution control. From the perspective of raising large fish with minimal losses, well-protected bodies of water were originally preferred. In many cases their lack of tidal movement caused steady accumulations of uneaten food and fish droppings. A release of nitrogen and other alterations in water chemistry resulted in algal blooms which suffocated and poisoned the fish and other living creatures by depriving them of oxygen. When affected regions were surveyed, their aquatic habitats were often found to be significantly altered. As a result of this, stocks of wild fish were depleted, with several important species failing to recover.

Burdening marine habitats

Like other primary sectors, the aquaculture industry is subject to numerous restrictions imposed to limit the risk of environmental damage and depletion of wild stock species. While several of these restrictions are clearly inadequate or poorly enforced, progress is limited by the small amounts of research undertaken each year. Even when there is conclusive evidence of problems, it may still require years before all of the concerns are addressed in the manner which enables a practical ban or restriction to be imposed. When uncertainties or differences of opinion occur, the process may drag on indefinitely. With the exception of some organic representatives, the conventional aquaculture industry has failed to address many of the concerns raised by scientists monitoring marine habitats and wild fish populations.

Ocean based aquaculture has the potential to influence the health and diversity of wild fish populations in several ways: As described above, the biological waste and pollutants can alter the habitats of wild fish species. There is the ongoing risk of disease and parasites transferring from farmed fish to wild fish stocks. This has already occurred with infectious anaemia and sea lice. Despite best efforts to contain them, farmed salmon do escape in significant numbers. It is assumed that some of these escapees will eventually breed with wild fish of the same or related species. Because farmed salmon are selectively bred for production purposes, their genes can potentially interfere with the process of natural selection occurring among wild stocks.

The real cost of processed pellet food

The Atlantic salmon is largely a carnivorous species, normally dependent on a diet of crustaceans and insects. During their accelerated growth cycles in captivity, they consume several times their adult weight in fish meal and oils which are usually processed as a pellet feed. The raw materials for this are removed in vast quantities from the North Atlantic and Southern Pacific oceans. An excess of five million tons of small pelagic fish are currently required to feed captive salmon stocks every year. The species involved include sardines, herring, anchovies, and mackerel. While still considered abundant, the slow decline for many of these populations is undoubtedly impacting on their natural predators in the ocean. These include many pelagic fish species, migratory birds including penguin, albatross, and the oceanic mammals like seal and dolphin.

It has been suggested that every kilogram of farmed salmon requires two and a half kilograms of fish to be taken from the ocean and processed into farmed stock feed. The apparent inefficiency of salmon farming suggests that ocean resources are being utilised in an unsustainable manner. While several attempts have been made to identify and utilise alternative feed sources, salmon farming remains largely dependent on fish meal.

The future may lie in developing farming technologies for other ocean species, particularly those which provide superior food conversion efficiency.

Conventionally farmed fish

Despite its emergence as a newly developed primary sector, fish farming can trace its origins to regions of china where it was first practiced several thousand years ago. Edible carp, eel, and catfish, were cultivated in reservoirs linking the canal networks used for crop irrigation. These farms were low intensity by today’s standards and had the advantage of collaborative resource efficiency. Because they used natural materials and sought to maintain the biological integrity of their product the farms were, in effect, organic.

On account of global competition and economic rationalisation, most fish farms are now designed to deliver high yields. In order to meet their production targets, conventional aquaculture farms frequently engage in husbandry practices which are harmful to their stock and potentially unsafe for the consumer.

Controlling the lifecycle of farmed fish

In the wild, fish of the same species will grow and reach sexual maturity at different rates, depending on their local conditions. Water chemistry, temperature, food availability, and population size are some of the factors which contribute to this variable growth.

For commercial fish farmers, there is considerable incentive to control the growth and sexual development of stock. Upon reaching sexual maturity, fish lose weight and decrease their stores of fat. Because this reduces the value of their stock, many conventional producers seek to influence the course of nature. In addition to growth and sexual development, interventions are applied to restrict the physical damage caused by overcrowding, to prevent disease, and to effect alterations in the colour, texture, and flavour of their farmed seafood. In theory, the capacity to control these factors should help to facilitate the most efficient application of resources. With these efficiencies in place, the anticipated outcome is a standardised fish product which can be promoted to consumers as a dependable source of fresh protein.

The reality of conventional fish farming

When stressed by overcrowding, pollution, or changes in their regular environment, farmed salmon are susceptible to disease and parasitic organisms. Infestations of sea lice (lepeophtheirus salmonis) are very common. They interfere with feeding, lower immunity and eventually break down the mucus layer which provides external protection against bacterial infection. Without treatment, fish usually succumb to a slow and agonising death.

Most conventional fish farms treat serious infestations with organophosphate pesticide. Despite claims to the contrary, these chemicals contaminate a significant proportion of conventionally farmed seafood. They contribute to a combined toxic load which can include polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, and heavy metals like mercury. Sea lice are less problematic when fish populations are restricted to environmentally sustainable levels. Salmon raised on overcrowded farms may require antibiotics and other medications to control inflammatory tumours which debilitate and kill large numbers of fish every year. Seriously contagious diseases such as infectious anaemia have the potential to wipe out significant stocks of farmed fish. In the United Kingdom, outbreaks of this disease must be reported. Since no effective treatments are currently available, the usual obligation is to destroy the afflicted stocks.

Wild salmon eat a varied diet which is particularly rich in crustaceans. Their natural red colouring comes from the keratin protein of shrimp, crabs, and other shelled creatures. When farmed on a diet of processed fish meal, their flesh becomes pale pink or an unpalatable grey colour. Since consumers expect their salmon to be brightly coloured, most conventional farmers supplement their feed with artificial colouring agents like canthaxanthin and astaxanthin. Some organic farmers use a yeast compound to enhance the colour of their product while others achieve a brighter colour by including crustacean shells in their feed.

Genetic modification

In recent years, several fish species have been genetically modified in efforts to improve their cost efficiency and manageability as commercially farmed stock. The biotechnology scientists have experimented with gene manipulation to alter food conversion efficiency in farmed salmon and trout. They have attempted to increase the fish’s capacity to withstand extreme cold by inserting mammalian growth hormone genes into fertilised fish eggs to encourage accelerated growth and weight gain. These technologies are often widely condemned when applied to conventionally farmed land animals. In the case of fish, many consumers are confused or genuinely surprised to be informed of them. Unless there is an adequate evaluation of the health and environmental consequences of these technologies, consumers are advised to avoid them. The alternative is to obtain unaltered seafood captured from the wild, or to consider farmed products with an organic certification.

Is seafood organic?

According to most accounts, the organic movement was established in response to problems associated with conventional crop agriculture. Shortly after the Second World War the industrialised manufacture and widespread use of agricultural fertilisers, pesticides, and other chemicals had permanently changed the way crops were grown, distributed, and sold to the consumer. In contrast to earlier times, most agriculture became highly specialised, capital intensive and the scale of commercial operations increased dramatically.

In response to these developments, ecologists and consumer groups were learning about the environmental impact and the consequences for human health. A drive for environmental awareness and sustainability during the sixties and seventies revealed many disturbing facts. Among these, it was widely reported that agricultural chemicals were being routinely detected in marine organisms.

For some reason, the problem of the oceans slipped easily from public consciousness. Perhaps this was due to their inaccessibility or the fact that relatively few individuals depended on the sea for the majority of their food resources. It is also true that commercial exploitation of the oceans lagged several decades behind that experienced on the land.

Prior to the seventies, most aquaculture was based on traditional practices and did not impact heavily upon the environment or human health. This changed rapidly with the emergence of new technologies and economic incentives which encouraged intensive farmed production of several fish and shellfish species.

Like the response to land based agriculture, the trend towards organic aquaculture is developing through the cooperation and shared interests of ethical producers and consumers. At the present time, a small quantity of farmed seafood is organically certified. Because the dependence on wild caught seafood is likely to continue, there may be some legitimacy in current arguments to include sustainable harvesting operations within the organic umbrella.

The way forward

Sustainable and organic practices are a relatively new development in ocean-based aquaculture. In order to achieve their provisional organic status, aquatic farms must establish a range of ecologically sound practices which include their commitment to stock welfare, habitat protection, prohibitions on chemical use, and consumer safety. A distinctive characteristic of most organic farms is their scale of operation. By raising smaller quantities of fish, the potential for disease and habitat degradation is significantly decreased. This assists organic sea farmers in maintaining high standards of product quality and also increases their ability to respond quickly to consumer demands and preferences.

At present, most of the organic standards established for aquaculture are preliminary and incomplete. This is well demonstrated by the absence of consensus regarding the sustainability of industry practices with regard to natural resources. The majority of conventional and organically certified salmon farms are dependent on the large-scale harvest of oceanic fish stocks each year. The harvested fish are processed into pellets which still provide the principle feed supply for captive salmon stocks.

Several organic certifiers have commissioned preliminary research to investigate alternative processed feeds as well as opportunities for raising live feed for captive salmon. In the absence of a fully developed standard, the organic certification authorities contribute various elements of their own philosophy. At times this has been frustrating for producers and consumers, but the popularity of organic produce continues to gain strength partly on account of its perceived integrity and dedication to such processes.

Location, reputation and stock management practices

With the interest of promoting themselves in a positive way, several of the larger organic seafood farms have used the internet and other resources to provide consumers with additional information about their organization’s philosophy and stock management procedures. While the information is informative, there appears to be an emphasis on focusing on certain aspects which can effectively differentiate their organic product from others. For example, there are organic fish farms now operating in Malaysia which outline the benefits of their fully enclosed and tightly controlled artificial environments. The farmers of organic salmon situated on the Orkney Islands of Northern Scotland promote the advantages of their own remote location and refer to the regions longstanding reputation for high quality standards and the purity of its natural produce. In Canada, one organic producer has highlighted the fact that their captive fish stocks are based on native species. They claim to have reduced the ecological risk of displacement which can occur whenever introduced fish escape and compete with native stocks for their habitats and food resources.

As the range of organically farmed seafood products continues to increase, the marketing aspect will intensify. This should enable consumers to identify the important product features which motivate their decision to choose organic. 

Pushing the boundaries

While representatives of the farmed seafood sector have slowly increased their status with various organic and food certification authorities, the companies and individuals involved in the harvest of wild stocks have been largely unsuccessful. The appeals for their legitimate inclusion within the organic umbrella have been rejected on several counts. At a fundamental level, the certification bodies have been established to regulate those items which are clearly produced or manufactured with human intervention. Wild seafood stocks captured from oceans, coastal estuaries, and rivers are not generally considered to fall within this category. Secondly, it is very difficult, if not impossible to control the living conditions of species in the wild. Due to repeated failures of legislation and management, most natural habitats are now affected by a range of industrial pollutants, agricultural chemicals, and the disease and ecological imbalances caused by introduced species.

In refusing organic status to wild caught fish, the certification authorities are less convincing when they refer to the depletion of wild stocks as a consequence of commercial fishing activities. When pressed, most of the certification authorities admit their interest in protecting the equity contained in their public identity and reputation among consumers. In effect, the certifiers are sustained by consumers who agree to pay a premium for their organic produce. At the present time there is insufficient motivation to extend the established boundaries which separate organic farmed fish and those harvested from the wild.

Organic oils

Despite their negative publicity over the years, edible oils play an important role in maintaining physical health and wellbeing. Compared to other nutrients, they are particularly high in energy and are routinely stored as a reserve supply. Every cell is surrounded by a lipid layer which helps to maintain the integrity of the intracellular environment. Oils play a key role in transporting fat-soluble nutrients like vitamin E, D, and they are key constituents of the steroidal compounds which regulate metabolism, development and integration of the body’s vital functions.

It wasn’t long ago that health advocates were recommending polyunsaturated vegetable oils like safflower, sunflower, and soybean as the best choices for a healthy diet. The current position is that too many of these can result in oxidation and free radical damage within the body. Monounsaturated vegetable oils and certain types of fish oil are more nutritious and provide higher levels of protection.

Why it’s important to use organic oils

Is it worthwhile seeking organically certified oils for kitchen purposes? The answer is yes, unreservedly, for a number of reasons. When living organisms are exposed to chemical pollutants, they process and eliminate these according to metabolic capacity while the remainder is temporarily stored in fatty tissue. Over time, the fat-soluble metabolites of pesticides, herbicides, and other agricultural agents are subject to accumulation within plant oils.

Choosing organically certified oils is the best way to ensure purity, since the oil yielding plants will have been minimally exposed to these chemicals. Unless there is a clear label to indicate otherwise, cooking oils extracted from intensively produced crops like canola, corn, and soybeans are likely to include material sourced from genetically modified stock. Organic certification provides an accurate assurance that these products contain only natural, unadulterated ingredients. Under organic conditions, well-nurtured soils provide balanced nutrients which support the healthy plant growth required for premium quality oil yields.

With a focus on high volume production, commercial oil crops can rapidly deplete soils by absorbing important trace minerals and organic components. When these are replaced with synthetic fertilisers, the vitality of forthcoming crops will be lowered along with the quality of their oils.

Extraction methodologies

Like most natural foods, vegetable oils must be handled with care to ensure the preservation of their beneficial properties. From a consumer’s perspective, the first aspect to consider is their method of extraction. Hydraulic pressing involves squeezing the oil-bearing produce between heavy metal plates. Traditionally, these were fashioned from combinations of timber and iron, not dissimilar to an antique wine press. Today, modern equipment is highly mechanised and efficient; although the hydraulic method is usually reserved for oil rich produce like olives and tree nuts. Unlike other methods, hydraulic pressing does not require the produce to be heated or treated with chemical solvents. Cold pressing protects the nutrients and prevents the oil from altering its physical composition and becoming unstable.

Another widely used extraction process is known as expeller. This involves a large auger rotating inside a cylindrical metal filter. When the blades of the auger contact the fruit or seeds, the oils are pressed through the pores of the filter while the solid pulp remains inside the cylinder. Expeller processing can be complicated and expensive in terms of the capital investment and periodic maintenance required. Despite claims to the contrary, expeller processing does not ensure a cold pressing. Unless the cylinders are refrigerated, there is potential for mechanical friction to generate levels of heat which will compromise the oil.

High volume oil processing and the use of hexane

Many of the high volume oil crops are now processed with the assistance of extreme heat and industrial solvents like hexane. Pause on that for a moment. Hexane is a highly toxic petroleum derivative.  According to manufacturing technologists, the solvents are evaporated throughout the process and leave no detectable residue within the extracted oils. Despite this assurance, the levels of heat applied must certainly destroy nutrients and lower the stability of the oil.

The best advice is to avoid the cheaper, mass produced vegetable oils. Concentrate as much as possible on the better quality products which should be organically certified and mechanically pressed.

Preserving and heating oils

Providing they are stored in darkened glass containers and kept away from light and heat, most vegetable oils will maintain their integrity for at least several months. In order to achieve consistent results, it is important to understand the basic heating properties of the different types of oil available. This enables an appropriate product to be selected for individual cooking applications.

The no heat oils have very low smoking points and should be used for cold dressings, sauces, and soups. Heating decreases their flavour, and can degrade their beneficial monounsaturated molecules into unhealthy saturated fats. Examples of no heat oils are flaxseed, wheat germ, and evening primrose. While some health conscious individuals may prefer to consume the majority of their oils with minimal or no heat applied, there are numerous exciting dishes which require flavoursome oils to be rapidly heated yet maintained below their smoking point.

Oils which can be used for medium or low heat applications include olive, grapeseed, walnut, and canola oils. Those known to maintain flavour and integrity with vigorous, high temperature applications include sesame, macadamia, almond, apricot kernel, and avocado. 

Nutritional content of oils

In terms of cardiovascular health, medical researchers have focused on the ratio of key essential fatty acids within each type of oil. Many of the monounsaturated vegetable oils are significantly higher in Omega 6 compared to Omega 3 fatty acids. In situations where the dietary intake of Omega 6 becomes too dominant, there is less opportunity for the equally important Omega 3 components to be effective. This can be corrected with dietary supplementation of fish oil capsules which are concentrated sources of Omega 3 fatty acids. Alternatively, some individuals may prefer to focus on eating the monounsaturated vegetable oils which contain a good balance of fatty acids. The best examples are the cold pressed flaxseed and walnut oils.

In terms of overall health benefits combined with practicality, there is no serious rival to a premium quality olive oil. A freshly pressed olive oil contains more antioxidant and polyphenol compounds than other monounsaturated vegetable oils. Freshness and quality can be identified by the level of acidity present in cold pressed oil. Virgin oil may contain up to three percent acidity while extra virgin must contain less than one percent acidity.

The major health benefits of premium grade olive oils appear to include enhanced immune function, supple skin, regulated appetite, and protection against certain types of bowel cancer. Therapeutic benefits aside, olive oil has richly satisfying flavours which can be described in terms of fruit, pepper, spice, and mildly bitter characteristics. There are several varieties of olive which interact with their local growing climates to provide a distinctive foundation for Mediterranean and Nouveau cuisine.

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